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Title: Latin for Beginners

Author: Benjamin Leonard D’Ooge

Release Date: April 25, 2006 [eBook #18251] [Most recently updated: June 12, 2022]

Language: English

Character set encoding: UTF-8

Produced by: Louise Hope, Dave Maddock and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LATIN FOR BEGINNERS ***

LATIN FOR BEGINNERS

BENJAMIN L. D’OOGE, Ph.D.

Professor in the Michigan State Normal College

Ginn and Company Boston · New York · Chicago · London

The Athenæum Press Ginn and Company · Proprietors · Boston · U.S.A.

* * * * *

CONTENTS

Lesson Page

Preface

TO THE STUDENT--By way of Introduction 1-4

PART I. THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN

ALPHABET, SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS, SYLLABLES, QUANTITY, ACCENT, HOW TO READ LATIN 5-11

PART II. WORDS AND FORMS

I-VI. FIRST PRINCIPLES--Subject and Predicate, Inflection, Number, Nominative Subject, Possessive Genitive, Agreement of Verb, Direct Object, Indirect Object, etc.--DIALOGUE 12-24

VII-VIII. FIRST OR Ā-DECLENSION--Gender, Agreement of Adjectives, Word Order 25-30

IX-X. SECOND OR O-DECLENSION--GENERAL RULES FOR DECLENSION--Predicate Noun, Apposition--DIALOGUE 31-35

XI. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS 36-37

XII. NOUNS IN «-ius» AND «-ium»--GERMĀNIA 38-39

XIII. SECOND DECLENSION (Continued)--Nouns in «-er» and «-ir»--ITALIA--DIALOGUE 39-41

XIV. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS 42-43

XV. ABLATIVE DENOTING WITH--Cause, Means, Accompaniment, Manner--THE ROMANS PREPARE FOR WAR 44-46

XVI. THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES 46-47

XVII. THE DEMONSTRATIVE «is, ea, id»--DIALOGUE 48-50

XVIII. CONJUGATION--Present, Imperfect, and Future of «sum»-- DIALOGUE 51-53

XIX. PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «amō» AND «moneō» 54-56

XX. IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «amō» AND «moneō»-- Meaning of the Imperfect--NIOBE AND HER CHILDREN 56-57

XXI. FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «amō» AND «moneō»-- NIOBE AND HER CHILDREN (Concluded) 58-59

XXII. REVIEW OF VERBS--The Dative with Adjectives-- CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS 59-61

XXIII. PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «regō» AND «audiō»-- CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS (Concluded) 61-63

XXIV. IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «regō» AND «audiō»-- The Dative with Special Intransitive Verbs 63-65

XXV. FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «regō» AND «audiō» 65-66

XXVI. VERBS IN «-iō»--Present, Imperfect, and Future Active Indicative of «capiō»--The Imperative 66-68

XXVII. PASSIVE VOICE--Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative of «amō» and «moneō»--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA 68-71

XXVIII. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF «regō» AND «audiō»--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (Continued) 72-73

XXIX. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF «-iō» VERBS--PRESENT PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND IMPERATIVE 73-75

XXX. SYNOPSES IN THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS--THE ABLATIVE DENOTING FROM--Place from Which, Separation, Personal Agent 75-78

XXXI. PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT OF «sum»-- DIALOGUE 79-81

XXXII. PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS--Meanings of the Perfect--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (Continued) 81-83

XXXIII. PLUPERFECT AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE-- PERFECT ACTIVE INFINITIVE 84-85

XXXIV. REVIEW OF THE ACTIVE VOICE--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (Concluded) 86-87

XXXV. PASSIVE PERFECTS OF THE INDICATIVE--PERFECT PASSIVE AND FUTURE ACTIVE INFINITIVE 88-90

XXXVI. REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS--Prepositions, Yes-or-No Questions 90-93

XXXVII. CONJUGATION OF «possum»--The Infinitive used as in English--Accusative Subject of an Infinitive-- THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA 93-96

XXXVIII. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN-- Agreement of the Relative--THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA (Concluded) 97-101

XXXIX-XLI. THE THIRD DECLENSION--Consonant Stems 101-106

XLII. REVIEW LESSON--TERROR CIMBRICUS 107

XLIII. THIRD DECLENSION--I-Stems 108-110

XLIV. IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION-- GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION--THE FIRST BRIDGE OVER THE RHINE 111-112

XLV. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION--THE ROMANS INVADE THE ENEMY’S COUNTRY 113-115

XLVI. THE FOURTH OR U-DECLENSION 116-117

XLVII. EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE--Place to Which, Place from Which, Place at or in Which, the Locative-- Declension of «domus»--DÆDALUS AND ICARUS 117-121

XLVIII. THE FIFTH OR Ē-DECLENSION--Ablative of Time --DÆDALUS AND ICARUS (Continued) 121-123

XLIX. PRONOUNS--Personal and Reflexive Pronouns--DÆDALUS AND ICARUS (Concluded) 123-126

L. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN «ipse» AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE «īdem»--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE 126-127

LI. THE DEMONSTRATIVES «hic», «iste», «ille»--A GERMAN CHIEFTAIN ADDRESSES HIS FOLLOWERS--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (Continued) 128-130

LII. THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (Concluded) 130-132

LIII. REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 133-135

LIV. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES--Ablative with Comparatives 135-136

LV. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (Continued)-- Declension of «plūs» 137-138

LVI. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (Concluded)-- Ablative of the Measure of Difference 138-139

LVII. FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 140-142

LVIII. NUMERALS--Partitive Genitive 142-144

LIX. NUMERALS (Continued)--Accusative of Extent-- CÆSAR IN GAUL 144-146

LX. DEPONENT VERBS--Prepositions with the Accusative 146-147

PART III. CONSTRUCTIONS

LXI. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD--Inflection of the Present-- Indicative and Subjunctive Compared 148-152

LXII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE 152-153

LXIII. INFLECTION OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--Sequence of Tenses 153-155

LXIV. INFLECTION OF THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--Substantive Clauses of Purpose 156-159

LXV. SUBJUNCTIVE OF «possum»--Verbs of Fearing 160-161

LXVI. THE PARTICIPLES--Tenses and Declension 161-164

LXVII. THE IRREGULAR VERBS «volō», «nōlō», «mālō»-- Ablative Absolute 164-166

LXVIII. THE IRREGULAR VERB «fīō»--Subjunctive of Result 167-168

LXIX. SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC--Predicate Accusative 169-171

LXX. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH «cum»--Ablative of Specification 171-173

LXXI. VOCABULARY REVIEW--Gerund and Gerundive-- Predicate Genitive 173-177

LXXII. THE IRREGULAR VERB «eō»--Indirect Statements 177-180

LXXIII. VOCABULARY REVIEW--THE IRREGULAR VERB «ferō»-- Dative with Compounds 181-183

LXXIV. VOCABULARY REVIEW--Subjunctive in Indirect Questions 183-185

LXXV. VOCABULARY REVIEW--Dative of Purpose or End for Which 185-186

LXXVI. VOCABULARY REVIEW--Genitive and Ablative of Quality or Description 186-188

LXXVII. REVIEW OF AGREEMENT--Review of the Genitive, Dative, and Accusative 189-190

LXXVIII. REVIEW OF THE ABLATIVE 191-192

LXXIX. REVIEW OF THE SYNTAX OF VERBS 192-193

READING MATTER

INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS 194-195

THE LABORS OF HERCULES 196-203

P. CORNELIUS LENTULUS: THE STORY OF A ROMAN BOY 204-215

APPENDIXES AND VOCABULARIES

APPENDIX I. TABLES OF DECLENSIONS, CONJUGATIONS, NUMERALS, ETC. 226-260

APPENDIX II. RULES OF SYNTAX 261-264

APPENDIX III. REVIEWS 265-282

SPECIAL VOCABULARIES 283-298

LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 299-331

ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY 332-343

INDEX 344-348

Display Problems

PREFACE

To make the course preparatory to Cæsar at the same time systematic, thorough, clear, and interesting is the purpose of this series of lessons.

The first pages are devoted to a brief discussion of the Latin language, its history, and its educational value. The body of the book, consisting of seventy-nine lessons, is divided into three parts.

Part I is devoted to pronunciation, quantity, accent, and kindred introductory essentials.

Part II carries the work through the first sixty lessons, and is devoted to the study of forms and vocabulary, together with some elementary constructions, a knowledge of which is necessary for the translation of the exercises and reading matter. The first few lessons have been made unusually simple, to meet the wants of pupils not well grounded in English grammar.

Part III contains nineteen lessons, and is concerned primarily with the study of syntax and of subjunctive and irregular verb forms. The last three of these lessons constitute a review of all the constructions presented in the book. There is abundant easy reading matter; and, in order to secure proper concentration of effort upon syntax and translation, no new vocabularies are introduced, but the vocabularies in Part II are reviewed.

It is hoped that the following features will commend themselves to teachers:

The forms are presented in their natural sequence, and are given, for the most part, in the body of the book as well as in a grammatical appendix. The work on the verb is intensive in character, work in other directions being reduced to a minimum while this is going on. The forms of the subjunctive are studied in correlation with the subjunctive constructions.

The vocabulary has been selected with the greatest care, using Lodge’s “Dictionary of Secondary Latin” and Browne’s “Latin Word List” as a basis. There are about six hundred words, exclusive of proper names, in the special vocabularies, and these are among the simplest and commonest words in the language. More than ninety-five per cent of those chosen are Cæsarian, and of these more than ninety per cent are used in Cæsar five or more times. The few words not Cæsarian are of such frequent occurrence in Cicero, Vergil, and other authors as to justify their appearance here. But teachers desiring to confine word study to Cæsar can easily do so, as the Cæsarian words are printed in the vocabularies in distinctive type. Concrete nouns have been preferred to abstract, root words to compounds and derivatives, even when the latter were of more frequent occurrence in Cæsar. To assist the memory, related English words are added in each special vocabulary. To insure more careful preparation, the special vocabularies have been removed from their respective lessons and placed by themselves. The general vocabulary contains about twelve hundred words, and of these above eighty-five per cent are found in Cæsar.

The syntax has been limited to those essentials which recent investigations, such as those of Dr. Lee Byrne and his collaborators, have shown to belong properly to the work of the first year. The constructions are presented, as far as possible, from the standpoint of English, the English usage being given first and the Latin compared or contrasted with it. Special attention has been given to the constructions of participles, the gerund and gerundive, and the infinitive in indirect statements. Constructions having a logical connection are not separated but are treated together.

Exercises for translation occur throughout, those for translation into Latin being, as a rule, only half as long as those for translation into English. In Part III a few of the commoner idioms in Cæsar are introduced and the sentences are drawn mainly from that author. From first to last a consistent effort is made to instill a proper regard for Latin word order, the first principles of which are laid down early in the course.

Selections for reading are unusually abundant and are introduced from the earliest possible moment. These increase in number and length as the book progresses, and, for the most part, are made an integral part of the lessons instead of being massed at the end of the book. This arrangement insures a more constant and thorough drill in forms and vocabulary, promotes reading power, and affords a breathing spell between succeeding subjects. The material is drawn from historical and mythological sources, and the vocabulary employed includes but few words not already learned. The book closes with a continued story which recounts the chief incidents in the life of a Roman boy. The last chapters record his experiences in Cæsar’s army, and contain much information that will facilitate the interpretation of the Commentaries. The early emphasis placed on word order and sentence structure, the simplicity of the syntax, and the familiarity of the vocabulary, make the reading selections especially useful for work in sight translation.

Reviews are called for at frequent intervals, and to facilitate this branch of the work an Appendix of Reviews has been prepared, covering both the vocabulary and the grammar.

The illustrations are numerous, and will, it is hoped, do much to stimulate interest in the ancient world and to create true and lasting impressions of Roman life and times.

A consistent effort has been made to use simple language and clear explanation throughout.

As an aid to teachers using this book a “Teacher’s Manual” has been prepared, which contains, in addition to general suggestions, notes on each lesson.

The author wishes to express his gratitude to the numerous teachers who tested the advance pages in their classes, and, as a result of their experience, have given much valuable aid by criticism and suggestion. Particular acknowledgments are due to Miss A. Susan Jones of the Central High School, Grand Rapids, Michigan; to Miss Clara Allison of the High School at Hastings, Michigan; and to Miss Helen B. Muir and Mr. Orland O. Norris, teachers of Latin in this institution.

BENJAMIN L. D’OOGE

MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE

TO THE STUDENT--BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION

«What is Latin?» If you will look at the map of Italy on the opposite page, you will find near the middle of the peninsula and facing the west coast a district called Latium,[1] and Rome its capital. The Latin language, meaning the language of Latium, was spoken by the ancient Romans and other inhabitants of Latium, and Latin was the name applied to it after the armies of Rome had carried the knowledge of her language far beyond its original boundaries. As the English of to-day is not quite the same as that spoken two or three hundred years ago, so Latin was not always the same at all times, but changed more or less in the course of centuries. The sort of Latin you are going to learn was in use about two thousand years ago. And that period has been selected because the language was then at its best and the greatest works of Roman literature were being produced. This period, because of its supreme excellence, is called the Golden Age of Roman letters.

[Footnote 1: Pronounce Lā´shĭ-ŭm.]

«The Spread of Latin.» For some centuries after Rome was founded, the Romans were a feeble and insignificant people, their territory was limited to Latium, and their existence constantly threatened by warlike neighbors. But after the third century before Christ, Rome’s power grew rapidly. She conquered all Italy, then reached out for the lands across the sea and beyond the Alps, and finally ruled over the whole ancient world. The empire thus established lasted for more than four hundred years. The importance of Latin increased with the growth of Roman power, and what had been a dialect spoken by a single tribe became the universal language. Gradually the language changed somewhat, developing differently in different countries. In Italy it has become Italian, in Spain Spanish, and in France French. All these nations, therefore, are speaking a modernized form of Latin.

«The Romans and the Greeks.» In their career of conquest the Romans came into conflict with the Greeks. The Greeks were inferior to the Romans in military power, but far superior to them in culture. They excelled in art, literature, music, science, and philosophy. Of all these pursuits the Romans were ignorant until contact with Greece revealed to them the value of education and filled them with the thirst for knowledge. And so it came about that while Rome conquered Greece by force of arms, Greece conquered Rome by force of her intellectual superiority and became her schoolmaster. It was soon the established custom for young Romans to go to Athens and to other centers of Greek learning to finish their training, and the knowledge of the Greek language among the educated classes became universal. At the same time many cultured Greeks--poets, artists, orators, and philosophers--flocked to Rome, opened schools, and taught their arts. Indeed, the preëminence of Greek culture became so great that Rome almost lost her ambition to be original, and her writers vied with each other in their efforts to reproduce in Latin what was choicest in Greek literature. As a consequence of all this, the civilization and national life of Rome became largely Grecian, and to Greece she owed her literature and her art.

«Rome and the Modern World.» After conquering the world, Rome impressed her language, laws, customs of living, and modes of thinking upon the subject nations, and they became Roman; and the world has remained largely Roman ever since. Latin continued to live, and the knowledge of Latin was the only light of learning that burned steadily through the dark ages that followed the downfall of the Roman Empire. Latin was the common language of scholars and remained so even down to the days of Shakespeare. Even yet it is more nearly than any other tongue the universal language of the learned. The life of to-day is much nearer the life of ancient Rome than the lapse of centuries would lead one to suppose. You and I are Romans still in many ways, and if Cæsar and Cicero should appear among us, we should not find them, except for dress and language, much unlike men of to-day.

«Latin and English.» Do you know that more than half of the words in the English dictionary are Latin, and that you are speaking more or less Latin every day? How has this come about? In the year 1066 William the Conqueror invaded England with an army of Normans. The Normans spoke French--which, you remember, is descended from Latin--and spread their language to a considerable extent over England, and so Norman-French played an important part in the formation of English and forms a large proportion of our vocabulary. Furthermore, great numbers of almost pure Latin words have been brought into English through the writings of scholars, and every new scientific discovery is marked by the addition of new terms of Latin derivation. Hence, while the simpler and commoner words of our mother tongue are Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon forms the staple of our colloquial language, yet in the realms of literature, and especially in poetry, words of Latin derivation are very abundant. Also in the learned professions, as in law, medicine, and engineering, a knowledge of Latin is necessary for the successful interpretation of technical and scientific terms.

«Why study Latin?» The foregoing paragraphs make it clear why Latin forms so important a part of modern education. We have seen that our civilization rests upon that of Greece and Rome, and that we must look to the past if we would understand the present. It is obvious, too, that the knowledge of Latin not only leads to a more exact and effective use of our own language, but that it is of vital importance and of great practical value to any one preparing for a literary or professional career. To this it may be added that the study of Latin throws a flood of light upon the structure of language in general and lays an excellent foundation for all grammatical study. Finally, it has been abundantly proved that there is no more effective means of strengthening the mind than by the earnest pursuit of this branch of learning.

«Review Questions.» Whence does Latin get its name? Where is Latium? Where is Rome? Was Latin always the same? What sort of Latin are we to study? Describe the growth of Rome’s power and the spread of Latin. What can you say of the origin of Italian, French, and Spanish? How did the ancient Greeks and Romans compare? How did Greece influence Rome? How did Rome influence the world? In what sense are we Romans still? What did Latin have to do with the formation of English? What proportion of English words are of Latin origin, and what kind of words are they? Why should we study Latin?

PART I

THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN

THE ALPHABET

«1.» The Latin alphabet contains the same letters as the English except that it has no w and no j.

«2.» The vowels, as in English, are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are consonants.

«3.» I is used both as a vowel and as a consonant. Before a vowel in the same syllable it has the value of a consonant and is called I consonant.

Thus in Iū-li-us the first i is a consonant, the second a vowel.

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS[1]

[Footnote 1: N.B. The sounds of the letters are best learned by hearing them correctly pronounced. The matter in this section is, therefore, intended for reference rather than for assignment as a lesson. As a first step it is suggested that the teacher pronounce the examples in class, the pupils following.]

«4.» Latin was not pronounced like English. The Romans at the beginning of the Christian era pronounced their language substantially as described below.

«5.» The vowels have the following sounds:

VOWELS[2] LATIN EXAMPLES

ā as in father hāc, stās ă like the first a in aha´, never as in hat ă´-măt, că-nās ē as in they tē´-lă, mē´-tă ĕ as in met tĕ´-nĕt, mĕr´-cēs ī as in machine sĕr´-tī, prā´-tī ĭ as in bit sĭ´-tĭs, bĭ´-bī ō as in holy Rō´-mă, ō´-rĭs ŏ as in wholly, never as in hot mŏ´-dŏ, bŏ´-nōs ū as in rude, or as oo in boot ū´-mŏr, tū´-bĕr ŭ as in full, or as oo in foot ŭt, tū´-tŭs

NOTE. It is to be observed that there is a decided difference in sound, except in the case of a, between the long and the short vowels. It is not merely a matter of quantity but also of quality.

[Footnote 2: Long vowels are marked ¯, short ones ˘.]

«6.» In «diphthongs» (two-vowel sounds) both vowels are heard in a single syllable.

DIPHTHONGS LATIN EXAMPLES

«ae» as ai in aisle tae´-dae «au» as ou in out gau´-dĕt «ei» as ei in eight dein´-dĕ «eu» as ĕ´o͝o (a short e followed by a short u in one syllable) seu «oe» like oi in toil foe´-dŭs «ui» like o͝o´ĭ (a short u followed by a short i in one syllable. Cf. English we) cui, huic

NOTE. Give all the vowels and diphthongs their proper sounds and do not slur over them in unaccented syllables, as is done in English.

«7.» «Consonants» are pronounced as in English, except that

CONSONANTS LATIN EXAMPLES

«c» is always like c in cat, never as in cent că´-dō, cĭ´-bŭs, cē´-nă «g» is always like g in get, never as in gem gĕ´-mō, gĭg´-nō «i consonant» is always like y in yes iăm, iŏ´-cŭs «n» before c, qu, or g is like ng in sing (compare the sound of n in anchor) ăn´-cŏ-ră (ang´-ko-ra) «qu», «gu», and sometimes «su» before a vowel have the sound of qw, gw, and sw. Here u has the value of consonant v and is not counted a vowel ĭn´-quĭt, quī, lĭn´-guă, săn´-guĭs, suā´-dĕ-ō «s» is like s in sea, never as in ease rŏ´-să, ĭs «t» is always like t in native, never as in nation ră´-tĭ-ō, nā´-tĭ-ō «v» is like w in wine, never as in vine «vī´-nŭm», «vĭr» «x» has the value of two consonants (cs or gs) and is like x in extract, not as in exact «ĕx´-trā», «ĕx-āc´-tŭs» «bs» is like ps and «bt» like pt «ŭrbs», «ŏb-tĭ´-nĕ-ō» «ch», «ph», and «th» are like c, p, t «pŭl´-chĕr», «Phoe´-bē», «thĕ-ā´-trŭm»

a. In combinations of consonants give each its distinct sound. Doubled consonants should be pronounced with a slight pause between the two sounds. Thus pronounce tt as in rat-trap, not as in rattle; pp as in hop-pole, not as in upper. Examples, «mĭt´-tō», «Ăp´pĭ-ŭs», «bĕl´-lŭm.»

SYLLABLES

«8.» A Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. Thus «aes-tā´-tĕ» has three syllables, «au-dĭ-ĕn´-dŭs» has four.

a. Two vowels with a consonant between them never make one syllable, as is so often the case in English. Compare English inside with Latin īn-sī´-dĕ.

«9.» Words are divided into syllables as follows:

1. A single consonant between two vowels goes with the second. Thus «ă-mā´-bĭ-lĭs», «mĕ-mŏ´-rĭ-ă», «ĭn-tĕ´-rĕ-ā», «ă´-bĕst», «pĕ-rē´-gĭt».[3]

[Footnote 3: In writing and printing it is customary to divide the parts of a compound, as «inter-eā», «ab-est», «sub-āctus», «per-ēgit», contrary to the correct phonetic rule.]

2. Combinations of two or more consonants:

a. A consonant followed by l or r goes with the l or r. Thus «pū´-blĭ-cŭs», «ă´-grī».

EXCEPTION. Prepositional compounds of this nature, as also ll and rr, follow rule b. Thus «ăb´-lŭ-ō», «ăb-rŭm´-pō», «ĭl´-lĕ», «fĕr´-rŭm».

b. In all other combinations of consonants the first consonant goes with the preceding vowel.[4] Thus «măg´-nŭs», «ĕ-gĕs´-tās», «vĭc-tō´-rĭ-ă», «hŏs´-pĕs», «ăn´-nŭs», «sŭ-bāc´-tŭs».

[Footnote 4: The combination nct is divided nc-t, as fūnc-tŭs, sānc-tŭs.]

3. The last syllable of a word is called the ul´-ti-ma; the one next to the last, the pe-nult´; the one before the penult, the an´-te-pe-nult´.

«10.» EXERCISE

Divide the words in the following passage into syllables and pronounce them, placing the accent as indicated:

Vā́dĕ ăd fŏrmī́căm, Ō pĭ́gĕr, ĕt cōnsī́dĕrā vĭ́ās ĕ́iŭs ĕt dĭ́scĕ săpĭĕ́ntĭăm: quae cŭm nōn hắbĕăt dŭ́cĕm nĕc praecĕptṓrĕm nĕc prī́ncĭpĕm, pắrăt ĭn aestā́tĕ cĭ́bŭm sĭ́bĭ ĕt cŏ́ngrĕgăt ĭn mĕ́ssĕ quŏd cŏ́mĕdăt.

[[Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise: which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler, provideth her meat in the summer and gathereth her food in the harvest.]]

QUANTITY

«11.» The quantity of a vowel or a syllable is the time it takes to pronounce it. Correct pronunciation and accent depend upon the proper observance of quantity.

«12.» «Quantity of Vowels.» Vowels are either long (¯) or short (˘). In this book the long vowels are marked. Unmarked vowels are to be considered short.

1. A vowel is short before another vowel or h; as «pŏ-ē´-ta», «tră´-hō».

2. A vowel is short before nt and nd, before final m or t, and, except in words of one syllable, before final l or r. Thus «a´-mănt», «a-măn´-dus», «a-mā´-băm», «a-mā´-băt», «a´-ni-măl», «a´-mŏr».

3. A vowel is long before nf, ns, nx, and nct. Thus «īn´-fe-rō», «re´-gēns», «sān´-xī», «sānc´-tus».

4. Diphthongs are always long, and are not marked.

«13.» «Quantity of Syllables.» Syllables are either long or short, and their quantity must be carefully distinguished from that of vowels.

1. «A syllable is short»,

a. If it ends in a short vowel; as «ă´-mō», «pĭ´-grĭ».

NOTE. In final syllables the short vowel may be followed by a final consonant. Thus the word «mĕ-mŏ´-rĭ-ăm» contains four short syllables. In the first three a short vowel ends the syllable, in the last the short vowel is followed by a final consonant.

2. «A syllable is long»,

a. If it contains a long vowel or a diphthong, as «cū´-rō», «poe´-nae», «aes-tā´-te».

b. If it ends in a consonant which is followed by another consonant, as «cor´-pus», «mag´-nus».

NOTE. The vowel in a long syllable may be either long or short, and should be pronounced accordingly. Thus in «ter´-ra», «in´-ter», the first syllable is long, but the vowel in each case is short and should be given the short sound. In words like «saxum» the first syllable is long because x has the value of two consonants (cs or gs).

3. In determining quantity h is not counted a consonant.

NOTE. Give about twice as much time to the long syllables as to the short ones. It takes about as long to pronounce a short vowel plus a consonant as it does to pronounce a long vowel or a diphthong, and so these quantities are considered equally long. For example, it takes about as long to say «cŭr´-rō» as it does «cū´-rō», and so each of these first syllables is long. Compare «mŏl´-lis» and «mō´-lis», «ā-mĭs´-sī» and «ā-mi´-sī».

ACCENT

«14.» Words of two syllables are accented on the first, as «mēn´-sa», «Cae´-sar».

«15.» Words of more than two syllables are accented on the penult if the penult is long. If the penult is short, accent the antepenult. Thus «mo-nē´-mus», «re´-gi-tur», «a-gri´-co-la», «a-man´-dus».

NOTE. Observe that the position of the accent is determined by the length of the syllable and not by the length of the vowel in the syllable. (Cf. §13.2, Note.)

«16.» Certain little words called enclit´ics[5] which have no separate existence, are added to and pronounced with a preceding word. The most common are «-que», and; «-ve», or; and «-ne», the question sign. The syllable before an enclitic takes the accent, regardless of its quantity. Thus «populus´que», «dea´que», «rēgna´ve», «audit´ne».

[Footnote 5: Enclitic means leaning back, and that is, as you see, just what these little words do. They cannot stand alone and so they lean back for support upon the preceding word.]

HOW TO READ LATIN

«17.» To read Latin well is not so difficult, if you begin right. Correct habits of reading should be formed now. Notice the quantities carefully, especially the quantity of the penult, to insure your getting the accent on the right syllable. (Cf. §15.) Give every vowel its proper sound and every syllable its proper length. Then bear in mind that we should read Latin as we read English, in phrases rather than in separate words. Group together words that are closely connected in thought. No good reader halts at the end of each word.

«18.» Read the stanzas of the following poem by Longfellow, one at a time, first the English and then the Latin version. The syllables inclosed in parentheses are to be slurred or omitted to secure smoothness of meter.

EXCELSIOR [[HIGHER]]! [6]

The shades of night were falling fast, As through an Alpine village passed A youth, who bore, ’mid snow and ice, A banner with the strange device, Excelsior!

Cadēbant noctis umbrae, dum Ibat per vīcum Alpicum Gelū nivequ(e) adolēscēns, Vēxillum cum signō ferēns, Excelsior!

His brow was sad; his eye beneath, Flashed like a falchion from its sheath, And like a silver clarion rung The accents of that unknown tongue, Excelsior!

Frōns trīstis, micat oculus Velut ē vāgīnā gladius; Sonantque similēs tubae Accentūs lingu(ae) incognitae, Excelsior!

In happy homes he saw the light Of household fires gleam warm and bright; Above, the spectral glaciers shone, And from his lips escaped a groan, Excelsior!

In domibus videt clārās Focōrum lūcēs calidās; Relucet glaciēs ācris, Et rumpit gemitūs labrīs, Excelsior!

“Try not the Pass!” the old man said; “Dark lowers the tempest overhead, The roaring torrent is deep and wide!” And loud that clarion voice replied, Excelsior!

Dīcit senex, “Nē trānseās! Suprā nigrēscit tempestās; Lātus et altus est torrēns.” Clāra vēnit vōx respondēns, Excelsior!

At break of day, as heavenward The pious monks of Saint Bernard Uttered the oft-repeated prayer, A voice cried through the startled air, Excelsior!

Iam lūcēscēbat, et frātrēs Sānctī Bernardī vigilēs Ōrābant precēs solitās, Cum vōx clāmāvit per aurās, Excelsior!

A traveler, by the faithful hound, Half-buried in the snow was found, Still grasping in his hand of ice That banner with the strange device, Excelsior!

Sēmi-sepultus viātor Can(e) ā fīdō reperītur, Comprēndēns pugnō gelidō Illud vēxillum cum signō, Excelsior!

There in the twilight cold and gray, Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay, And from the sky, serene and far, A voice fell, like a falling star, Excelsior!

Iacet corpus exanimum Sed lūce frīgidā pulchrum; Et caelō procul exiēns Cadit vōx, ut Stella cadēns, Excelsior!

[Footnote 6: Translation by C. W. Goodchild in Praeco Latinus, October, 1898.]

PART II

WORDS AND FORMS

LESSON I

FIRST PRINCIPLES

«19.» «Subject and Predicate.» 1. Latin, like English, expresses thoughts by means of sentences. A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought, and in its simplest form is the statement of a single fact. Thus,

Galba is a farmer «Galba est agricola» The sailor fights «Nauta pugnat»

In each of these sentences there are two parts:

SUBJECT PREDICATE Galba is a farmer «Galba» The sailor fights «Nauta» «pugnat»

2. The subject is that person, place, or thing about which something is said, and is therefore a noun or some word which can serve the same purpose.

a. Pronouns, as their name implies (pro, “instead of,” and noun), often take the place of nouns, usually to save repeating the same noun, as, Galba is a farmer; «he» is a sturdy fellow.

3. The predicate is that which is said about the subject, and consists of a verb with or without modifiers.

a. A verb is a word which asserts something (usually an act) concerning a person, place, or thing.

«20.» «The Object.» In the two sentences, The boy hit the ball and The ball hit the boy, the same words are used, but the meaning is different, and depends upon the order of the words. The «doer» of the act, that about which something is said, is, as we have seen above, the «subject». «That to which something is done» is the «direct object» of the verb. The boy hit the ball is therefore analyzed as follows:

SUBJECT PREDICATE /-----------\ The boy hit the ball (verb) (direct object)

a. A verb whose action passes over to the object directly, as in the sentence above, is called a «transitive verb». A verb which does not admit of a direct object is called «intransitive», as, I walk, he comes.

«21.» «The Copula.» The verb to be in its different forms--are, is, was, etc.--does not tell us anything about the subject; neither does it govern an object. It simply connects the subject with the word or words in the predicate that possess a distinct meaning. Hence it is called the «copula», that is, the joiner or link.

«22.» In the following sentences pronounce the Latin and name the nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, predicates, copulas:

1. «America est patria mea» America is fatherland my

2. «Agricola fīliam amat» (The) farmer (his) daughter loves

3. «Fīlia est Iūlia» (His) daughter is Julia

4. «Iūlia et agricola sunt in īnsulā» Julia and (the) farmer are on (the) island

5. «Iūlia aquam portat» Julia water carries

6. «Rosam in comīs habet» (A) rose in (her) hair (she) has

7. «Iūlia est puella pulchra» Julia is (a) girl pretty

8. «Domina fīliam pulchram habet» (The) lady (a) daughter beautiful has

a. The sentences above show that Latin does not express some words which are necessary in English. First of all, Latin has no article «the» or «a»; thus «agricola» may mean the farmer, a farmer, or simply farmer. Then, too, the personal pronouns, I, you, he, she, etc., and the possessive pronouns, my, your, his, her, etc., are not expressed if the meaning of the sentence is clear without them.

LESSON II

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

«23.» «Inflection.» Words may change their forms to indicate some change in sense or use, as, is, are; was, were; who, whose, whom; farmer, farmer’s; woman, women. This is called «inflection». The inflection of a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its «declension», that of a verb its «conjugation».

«24.» «Number.» Latin, like English, has two numbers, singular and plural. In English we usually form the plural by adding -s or -es to the singular. So Latin changes the singular to the plural by changing the ending of the word. Compare

«Naut-a pugnat» The sailor fights «Naut-ae pugnant» The sailors fight

«25.» RULE. Nouns that end in «-a» in the singular end in «-ae» in the plural.

«26.» Learn the following nouns so that you can give the English for the Latin or the Latin for the English. Write the plural of each.

«agri´cola», farmer (agriculture)[1] «aqua», water (aquarium) «causa», cause, reason «do´mina», lady of the house, mistress (dominate) «filia», daughter (filial) «fortū´na», fortune «fuga», flight (fugitive) «iniū´ria», wrong, injury «lūna», moon (lunar) «nauta», sailor (nautical) «puel´la», girl «silva», forest (silvan) «terra», land (terrace)

[Footnote 1: The words in parentheses are English words related to the Latin. When the words are practically identical, as «causa», cause, no comparison is needed.]

«27.» Compare again the sentences

«Nauta pugna-t» The sailor fights «Nautae pugna-nt» The sailors fight

In the first sentence the verb «pugna-t» is in the third person singular, in the second sentence «pugna-nt» is in the third person plural.

«28.» RULE. «Agreement of Verb.» A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject.

«29.» RULE. In the conjugation of the Latin verb the third person singular active ends in «-t», the third person plural in «-nt». The endings which show the person and number of the verb are called «personal endings».

«30.» Learn the following verbs and write the plural of each. The personal pronouns he, she, it, etc., which are necessary in the inflection of the English verb, are not needed in the Latin, because the personal endings take their place. Of course, if the verb’s subject is expressed we do not translate the personal ending by a pronoun; thus «nauta pugnat» is translated the sailor fights, not the sailor he fights.

«ama-t» he (she, it) loves, is loving, does love (amity, amiable) «labō´ra-t» “ “ “ labors, is laboring, does labor «nūntia-t»[2] “ “ “ announces, is announcing, does announce «porta-t» “ “ “ carries, is carrying, does carry (porter) «pugna-t» “ “ “ fights, is fighting, does fight (pugnacious)

[Footnote 2: The u in «nūntiō» is long by exception. (Cf. §12.2.)]

«31.» EXERCISES

I. 1. The daughter loves, the daughters love. 2. The sailor is carrying, the sailors carry. 3. The farmer does labor, the farmers labor. 4. The girl is announcing, the girls do announce. 5. The ladies are carrying, the lady carries.

II. 1. Nauta pugnat, nautae pugnant. 2. Puella amat, puellae amant. 3. Agricola portat, agricolae portant. 4. Fīlia labōrat, fīliae labōrant. 5. Nauta nūntiat, nautae nūntiant. 6. Dominae amant, domina amat.

[Illustration: DOMINA]

LESSON III

«32.» «Declension of Nouns.» We learned above (§§19, 20) the difference between the subject and object, and that in English they may be distinguished by the order of the words. Sometimes, however, the order is such that we are left in doubt. For example, the sentence The lady her daughter loves might mean either that the lady loves her daughter, or that the daughter loves the lady.

1. If the sentence were in Latin, no doubt could arise, because the subject and the object are distinguished, not by the order of the words, but by the endings of the words themselves. Compare the following sentences:

«Domina fīliam amat» «Fīliam domina amat» «Amat fīliam domina» «Domina amat fīliam» The lady loves her daughter

«Fīlia dominam amat» «Dominam fīlia amat» «Amat dominam fīlia» «Fīlia amat dominam» The daughter loves the lady

a. Observe that in each case the subject of the sentence ends in «-a» and the object in «-am». The form of the noun shows how it is used in the sentence, and the order of the words has no effect on the essential meaning.

2. As stated above (§23), this change of ending is called «declension», and each different ending produces what is called a «case». When we decline a noun, we give all its different cases, or changes of endings. In English we have three cases,--nominative, possessive, and objective; but, in nouns, the nominative and objective have the same form, and only the possessive case shows a change of ending, by adding ’s or the apostrophe. The interrogative pronoun, however, has the fuller declension, who? whose? whom?

«33.» The following table shows a comparison between English and Latin declension forms, and should be thoroughly memorized:

When the nominative singular of a noun ends in «-a», observe that

a. The nominative plural ends in «-ae».

b. The genitive singular ends in «-ae» and the genitive plural in «-ārum».

c. The accusative singular ends in «-am» and the accusative plural in «-ās».

d. The genitive singular and the nominative plural have the same ending.

«34.» EXERCISE

Pronounce the following words and give their general meaning. Then give the number and case, and the use of each form. Where the same form stands for more than one case, give all the possible cases and uses.

1. Silva, silvās, silvam. 2. Fugam, fugae, fuga. 3. Terrārum, terrae, terrās. 4. Aquās, causam, lūnās. 5. Fīliae, fortūnae, lūnae. 6. Iniūriās, agricolārum, aquārum. 7. Iniūriārum, agricolae, puellās. 8. Nautam, agricolās, nautās. 9. Agricolam, puellam, silvārum.

LESSON IV

[Special Vocabulary]

[See Transcriber’s Note at beginning of text.]

NOUNS «dea», goddess (deity) Diā´na, Diana «fera», a wild beast (fierce) Lātō´na, Latona «sagit´ta», arrow

VERBS «est», he (she, it) is; «sunt», they are «necat», he (she, it) kills, is killing, does kill

CONJUNCTION[A] «et», and

PRONOUNS «quis», interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., who? «cuius» (pronounced co͝oi´yo͝os, two syllables), interrog. pronoun, gen. sing., whose?

[Footnote A: A conjunction is a word which connects words, parts of sentences, or sentences.]

«35.» We learned from the table (§33) that the Latin nominative, genitive, and accusative correspond, in general, to the nominative, possessive, and objective in English, and that they are used in the same way. This will be made even clearer by the following sentence:

«Fīlia agricolae nautam amat», the farmer’s daughter (or the daughter of the farmer) loves the sailor

What is the subject? the direct object? What case is used for the subject? for the direct object? What word denotes the possessor? In what case is it?

«36.» RULE. «Nominative Subject.» The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative and answers the question Who? or What?

«37.» RULE. «Accusative Object.» The direct object of a transitive verb is in the Accusative and answers the question Whom? or What?

«38.» RULE. «Genitive of the Possessor.» The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the Genitive and answers the question Whose?

[Illustration: DIANA SAGITTAS PORTAT ET FERAS NECAT]

«39.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

I. 1. Diāna est dea. 2. Lātōna est dea. 3. Diāna et Lātōna sunt deae. 4. Diāna est dea lūnae. 5. Diāna est fīlia Lātōnae. 6. Lātōna Diānam amat. 7. Diāna est dea silvārum. 8. Diāna silvam amat. 9. Diāna sagittās portat. 10. Diāna ferās silvae necat. 11. Ferae terrārum pugnant.

For the order of words imitate the Latin above.

II. 1. The daughter of Latona does love the forests. 2. Latona’s daughter carries arrows. 3. The farmers’ daughters do labor. 4. The farmer’s daughter loves the waters of the forest. 5. The sailor is announcing the girls’ flight. 6. The girls announce the sailors’ wrongs. 7. The farmer’s daughter labors. 8. Diana’s arrows are killing the wild beasts of the land.

«40.» CONVERSATION

Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. The answers may be found in the exercises preceding.

1. Quis est Diāna? 2. Cuius fīlia est Diāna? 3. Quis Diānam amat? 4. Quis silvam amat? 5. Quis sagittās portat? 6. Cuius fīliae labōrant?

LESSON V

NOUNS «corō´na», wreath, garland, crown fā´bula, story (fable) «pecū´nia», money (pecuniary) «pugna», battle (pugnacious) «victō´ria», victory

VERBS «dat», he (she, it) gives nārrat, he (she, it) tells (narrate)

CONJUNCTION[A] «quia» or «quod», because

«cui» (pronounced co͝oi, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat. sing., to whom? for whom?

«41.» «The Dative Case.» In addition to the relationships between words expressed by the nominative, genitive (possessive), and accusative (objective) cases, there are other relationships, to express which in English we use such words as from, with, by, to, for, in, at.[1]

[Footnote 1: Words like to, for, by, from, in, etc., which define the relationship between words, are called «prepositions».]

Latin, too, makes frequent use of such prepositions; but often it expresses these relations without them by means of case forms which English does not possess. One of the cases found in the Latin declension and lacking in English is called the dative.

«42.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the dative singular ends in «-ae» and the dative plural in «-īs».

NOTE. Observe that the genitive singular, the dative singular, and the nominative plural all have the same ending, «-ae»; but the uses of the three cases are entirely different. The general meaning of the sentence usually makes clear which case is intended.

a. Form the dative singular and plural of the following nouns: «fuga», «causa», «fortūna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola», «nauta», «domina».

«43.» «The Dative Relation.» The dative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions to, towards, for.

These prepositions are often used in English in expressions of motion, such as She went to town, He ran towards the horse, Columbus sailed for America. In such cases the dative is not used in Latin, as motion through space is foreign to the dative relation. But the dative is used to denote that to or towards which a benefit, injury, purpose, feeling, or quality is directed, or that for which something serves or exists.

a. What dative relations do you discover in the following?

The teacher gave a prize to John because he replied so promptly to all her questions--a good example for the rest of us. It is a pleasure to us to hear him recite. Latin is easy for him, but it is very hard for me. Some are fitted for one thing and others for another.

«44.» «The Indirect Object.» Examine the sentence

«Nauta fugam nūntiat», the sailor announces the flight

Here the verb, «nūntiat», governs the direct object, «fugam», in the accusative case. If, however, we wish to mention the persons «to whom» the sailor announces the flight, as, The sailor announces the flight «to the farmers», the verb will have two objects:

1. Its direct object, flight («fugam») 2. Its indirect object, farmers

According to the preceding section, to the farmers is a relation covered by the dative case, and we are prepared for the following rule:

«45.» RULE. «Dative Indirect Object.» The indirect object of a verb is in the Dative.

a. The indirect object usually stands before the direct object.

«46.» We may now complete the translation of the sentence The sailor announces the flight to the farmers, and we have

«Nauta agricolīs fugam nūntiat»

«47.» EXERCISES

Point out the direct and indirect objects and the genitive of the possessor.

I. 1. Quis nautīs pecūniam dat? 2. Fīliae agricolae nautīs pecūniam dant. 3. Quis fortūnam pugnae nūntiat? 4. Galba agricolīs fortunam pugnae nūntiat. 5. Cui domina fābulam nārrat? 6. Fīliae agricolae domina fābulam nārrat. 7. Quis Diānae corōnam dat? 8. Puella Diānae corōnam dat quia Diānam amat. 9. Dea lūnae sagittās portat et ferās silvārum necat. 10. Cuius victōriam Galba nūntiat? 11. Nautae victōriam Galba nūntiat.

Imitate the word order of the preceding exercise.

II. 1. To whom do the girls give a wreath? 2. The girls give a wreath to Julia, because Julia loves wreaths. 3. The sailors tell the ladies[2] a story, because the ladies love stories. 4. The farmer gives his (§22.a) daughter water. 5. Galba announces the cause of the battle to the sailor. 6. The goddess of the moon loves the waters of the forest. 7. Whose wreath is Latona carrying? Diana’s.

[Footnote 2: Observe that in English the indirect object often stands without a preposition to to mark it, especially when it precedes the direct object.]

LESSON VI

ADJECTIVES «bona», good «grāta», pleasing «magna», large, great «mala», bad, wicked «parva», small, little «pulchra», beautiful, pretty «sōla», alone

NOUNS ancil´la, maidservant Iūlia, Julia

ADVERBS[A] «cūr», why «nōn», not

PRONOUNS «mea», my; «tua», thy, your (possesives) «quid», interrog. pronoun, nom. and acc. sing., what?

«-ne», the question sign, an enclitic (§16) added to the first word, which, in a question, is usually the verb, as «amat», he loves, but «amat´ne»? does he love? «est», he is; «estne»? is he? Of course «-ne» is not used when the sentence contains «quis», «cūr», or some other interrogative word.

[Footnote A: An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, She sings sweetly; she is very talented; she began to sing very early.]

«48.» «The Ablative Case.» Another case, lacking in English but found in the fuller Latin declension, is the ab´la-tive.

«49.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the ablative singular ends in «-ā» and the ablative plural in «-īs».

a. Observe that the final -ă of the nominative is short, while the final -ā of the ablative is long, as,

Nom. fīliă Abl. fīliā

b. Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural.

c. Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns: «fuga», «causa», «fortūna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola», «nauta», «domina».

«50.» «The Ablative Relation.» The ablative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions from, with, by, at, in. It denotes

1. That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of which it is deprived--generally translated by from.

2. That with which something is associated or by means of which it is done--translated by with or by.

3. The place where or the time when something happens--translated by in or at.

a. What ablative relations do you discover in the following?

In our class there are twenty boys and girls. Daily at eight o’clock they come from home with their books, and while they are at school they read with ease the books written by the Romans. By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be overcome.

«51.» «Prepositions.» While, as stated above (§41), many relations expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the accusative or ablative.

«52.» RULE. «Object of a Preposition.» A noun governed by a preposition must be in the Accusative or Ablative case.

«53.» Prepositions denoting the ablative relations from, with, in, on, are naturally followed by the ablative case. Among these are

«ā»[1] or «ab», from, away from «dē», from, down from «ē»[1] or «ex», from, out from, out of «cum», with «in», in, on

[Footnote 1: «ā» and «ē» are used only before words beginning with a consonant; «ab» and «ex» are used before either vowels or consonants.]

1. Translate into Latin, using prepositions. In the water, on the land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon.

«54.» «Adjectives.» Examine the sentence

«Puella parva bonam deam amat», the little girl loves the good goddess

In this sentence «parva» (little) and «bonam» (good) are not nouns, but are descriptive words expressing quality. Such words are called adjectives,[2] and they are said to belong to the noun which they describe.

[Footnote 2: Pick out the adjectives in the following: “When I was a little boy, I remember that one cold winter’s morning I was accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. ‘My pretty boy,’ said he, ‘has your father a grindstone?’ ‘Yes, sir,’ said I. ‘You are a fine little fellow,’ said he. ‘Will you let me grind my ax on it?’”]

You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs. The ending of «parva» shows that it belongs to «puella», and the ending of «bonam» that it belongs to «deam». Words that belong together are said to agree, and the belonging-together is called agreement. Observe that the adjective and its noun agree in number and case.

«55.» Examine the sentences

«Puella est parva», the girl is little «Puella parva bonam deam amat», the little girl loves the good goddess

In the first sentence the adjective «parva» is separated from its noun by the verb and stands in the predicate. It is therefore called a predicate adjective. In the second sentence the adjectives «parva» and «bonam» are closely attached to the nouns «puella» and «deam» respectively, and are called attributive adjectives.

a. Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the following:

Do you think Latin is hard? Hard studies make strong brains. Lazy students dislike hard studies. We are not lazy.

«56.» DIALOGUE

JULIA AND GALBA

I. Quis, Galba, est Diāna? G. Diāna, Iūlia, est pulchra dea lūnae et silvārum. I. Cuius fīlia, Galba, est Diāna? G. Lātōnae fīlia, Iūlia, est Diāna. I. Quid Diāna portat? G. Sagittās Diāna portat. I. Cūr Diāna sagittās portat? G. Diāna sagittās portat, Iūlia, quod malās ferās silvae magnae necat. I. Amatne Lātōna fīliam? G. Amat, et fīlia Lātōnam amat. I. Quid fīlia tua parva portat? G. Corōnās pulchrās fīlia mea parva portat. I. Cui fīlia tua corōnās pulchrās dat? G. Diānae corōnās dat. I. Quis est cum fīliā tuā? Estne sōla? G. Sōla nōn est; fīlia mea parva est cum ancillā meā.

a. When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called the voc´ative (Latin vocāre, “to call”). In form the vocative is regularly like the nominative. In English the name of the person addressed usually stands first in the sentence. The Latin vocative rarely stands first. Point out five examples of the vocative in this dialogue.

b. Observe that questions answered by yes or no in English are answered in Latin by repeating the verb. Thus, if you wished to answer in Latin the question Is the sailor fighting? «Pugnatne nauta?» you would say «Pugnat», he is fighting, or «Nōn pugnat», he is not fighting.

LESSON VII

THE FIRST OR Ā-DECLENSION

NOUNS «casa, -ae», f., cottage cēna, -ae, f., dinner «gallī´na, -ae», f., hen, chicken «īn´sula, ae», f., island (pen-insula)

ADVERBS «de-in´de», then, in the next place «ubi», where

PREPOSITION «ad», to, with acc. to express motion toward

PRONOUN «quem», interrog. pronoun, acc. sing., whom?

VERBS ha´bitat, he (she, it) lives, is living, does live (inhabit) «laudat», he (she, it) praises, is praising, does praise (laud) «parat», he (she, it) prepares, is preparing, does prepare «vocat», he (she, it) calls, is calling, does call; invites, is inviting, does invite (vocation)

«57.» In the preceding lessons we have now gone over all the cases, singular and plural, of nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a». All Latin nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a» belong to the First Declension. It is also called the Ā-Declension because of the prominent part which the vowel «a» plays in the formation of the cases. We have also learned what relations are expressed by each case. These results are summarized in the following table:

«58.» «The Base.» That part of a word which remains unchanged in inflection and to which the terminations are added is called the «base».

Thus, in the declension above, «domin-» is the base and «-a» is the termination of the nominative singular.

«59.» Write the declension of the following nouns, separating the base from the termination by a hyphen. Also give them orally.

«pugna», «terra», «lūna», «ancil´la», «corō´na», «īn´sula», «silva»

«60.» «Gender.» In English, names of living beings are either masculine or feminine, and names of things without life are neuter. This is called «natural gender». Yet in English there are some names of things to which we refer as if they were feminine; as, “Have you seen my yacht? She is a beauty.” And there are some names of living beings to which we refer as if they were neuter; as, “Is the baby here? No, the nurse has taken it home.” Some words, then, have a gender quite apart from sex or real gender, and this is called «grammatical gender».

Latin, like English, has three genders. Names of males are usually masculine and of females feminine, but names of things have grammatical gender and may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter. Thus we have in Latin the three words, «lapis», a stone; «rūpēs», a cliff; and «saxum», a rock. «Lapis» is masculine, «rūpēs» feminine, and «saxum» neuter. The gender can usually be determined by the ending of the word, and must always be learned, for without knowing the gender it is impossible to write correct Latin.

«61.» «Gender of First-Declension Nouns.» Nouns of the first declension are feminine unless they denote males. Thus «silva» is feminine, but «nauta», sailor, and «agricola», farmer, are masculine.

«62.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.

I. 1. Agricola cum fīliā in casā habitat. 2. Bona fīlia agricolae cēnam parat. 3. Cēna est grāta agricolae[1] et agricola bonam fīliam laudat. 4. Deinde fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cēnam vocat. 5. Gallīnae fīliam agricolae amant. 6. Malae fīliae bonās cēnās nōn parant. 7. Fīlia agricolae est grāta dominae. 8. Domina in īnsulā magnā habitat. 9. Domina bonae puellae parvae pecūniam dat.

II. 1. Where does the farmer live? 2. The farmer lives in the small cottage. 3. Who lives with the farmer? 4. (His) little daughter lives with the farmer. 5. (His) daughter is getting («parat») a good dinner for the farmer. 6. The farmer praises the good dinner. 7. The daughter’s good dinner is pleasing to the farmer.

[Footnote 1: Note that the relation expressed by the dative case covers that to which a feeling is directed. (Cf. §43.)]

[Illustration]

What Latin words are suggested by this picture?

«63.» CONVERSATION

Answer the questions in Latin.

1. Quis cum agricolā in casā habitat? 2. Quid bona fīlia agricolae parat? 3. Quem agricola laudat? 4. Vocatne fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cēnam? 5. Cuius fīlia est grāta dominae? 6. Cui domina pecūniam dat?

LESSON VIII

FIRST DECLENSION (Continued)

NOUNS «Italia, -ae», f., Italy Sicilia, -ae, f., Sicily «tuba, -ae», f., trumpet (tube) «via, -ae», f., way, road, street (viaduct)

ADJECTIVES «alta», high, deep (altitude) «clāra», clear, bright; famous «lāta», wide (latitude) «longa», long (longitude) «nova», new (novelty)

«64.» We have for some time now been using adjectives and nouns together and you have noticed an agreement between them in case and in number (§54). They agree also in gender. In the phrase «silva magna», we have a feminine adjective in «-a» agreeing with a feminine noun in «-a».

«65.» RULE. «Agreement of Adjectives.» Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case.

«66.» Feminine adjectives in «-a» are declined like feminine nouns in «-a», and you should learn to decline them together as follows:

NOUN ADJECTIVE «domina» (base «domin-»), «bona» (base «bon-»), f., lady good

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS Nom. do´mina bona -a Gen. dominae bonae -ae Dat. dominae bonae -ae Acc. dominam bonam -am Abl. dominā bonā -ā

PLURAL Nom. dominae bonae -ae Gen. dominā´rum bonā´rum -ārum Dat. dominīs bonīs -īs Acc. dominās bonās -ās Abl. dominīs bonīs -īs

a. In the same way decline together «puella mala», the bad girl; «ancil´la parva», the little maid; «fortū´na magna», great fortune.

«67.» The words «dea», goddess, and «fīlia», daughter, take the ending «-ābus» instead of «-īs» in the dative and ablative plural. Note the dative and ablative plural in the following declension:

«dea bona» (bases «de-» «bon-»)

SINGULAR PLURAL Nom. dea bona deae bonae Gen. deae bonae deā´rum bonā´rum Dat. deae bonae deā´bus bonīs Acc. deam bonam deās bonās Abl. deā bonā dea´bus bonīs

a. In the same way decline together «fīlīa parva».

«68.» «Latin Word Order.» The order of words in English and in Latin sentences is not the same.

In English we arrange words in a fairly fixed order. Thus, in the sentence My daughter is getting dinner for the farmers, we cannot alter the order of the words without spoiling the sentence. We can, however, throw emphasis on different words by speaking them with more force. Try the effect of reading the sentence by putting special force on my, daughter, dinner, farmers.

In Latin, where the office of the word in the sentence is shown by its ending (cf. §32.1), and not by its position, the order of words is more free, and position is used to secure the same effect that in English is secured by emphasis of voice. To a limited extent we can alter the order of words in English, too, for the same purpose. Compare the sentences

I saw a game of football at Chicago last November (normal order) «Last November» I saw a game of football at Chicago At Chicago, last November, I saw a game of «football»

1. In a Latin sentence the most emphatic place is the first; next in importance is the last; the weakest point is the middle. Generally the subject is the most important word, and is placed first; usually the verb is the next in importance, and is placed last. The other words of the sentence stand between these two in the order of their importance. Hence the normal order of words--that is, where no unusual emphasis is expressed--is as follows:

subject--modifiers of the subject--indirect object-- direct object--adverb--verb

Changes from the normal order are frequent, and are due to the desire for throwing emphasis upon some word or phrase. Notice the order of the Latin words when you are translating, and imitate it when you are turning English into Latin.

2. Possessive pronouns and modifying genitives normally stand after their nouns. When placed before their nouns they are emphatic, as

«fīlia mea», my daughter; «mea fīlia», «my» daughter; «casa Galbae», Galba’s cottage; «Galbae casa», «Galba’s» cottage.

Notice the variety of emphasis produced by writing the following sentence in different ways:

«Fīlia mea agricolīs cēnam parat» (normal order) «Mea fīlia agricolīs parat cēnam» («mea» and «cēnam» emphatic) «Agricolīs fīlia mea cēnam parat» («agricolīs» emphatic)

3. An adjective placed before its noun is more emphatic than when it follows. When great emphasis is desired, the adjective is separated from its noun by other words.

«Fīlia mea casam parvam nōn amat» («parvam» not emphatic) «Fīlia mea parvam casam nōn amat» («parvam» more emphatic) «Parvam fīlia mea casam nōn amat» («parvam» very emphatic)

4. Interrogative words usually stand first, the same as in English.

5. The copula (as «est», «sunt») is of so little importance that it frequently does not stand last, but may be placed wherever it sounds well.

«69.» EXERCISE

Note the order of the words in these sentences and pick out those that are emphatic.

1. Longae nōn sunt tuae viae. 2. Suntne tubae novae in meā casā? Nōn sunt. 3. Quis lātā in silvā habitat? Diāna, lūnae clārae pulchra dea, lātā in silvā habitat. 4. Nautae altās et lātās amant aquās. 5. Quid ancilla tua portat? Ancilla mea tubam novam portat. 6. Ubi sunt Lesbia et Iūlia? In tuā casa est Lesbia et Iūlia est in meā. 7. Estne Italia lāta terra? Longa est Italia, nōn lāta. 8. Cui Galba agricola fābulam novam nārrat? Fīliābus dominae clārae fābulam novam nārrat. 9. Clāra est īnsula Sicilia. 10. Quem laudat Lātōna? Lātōna laudat fīliam.

«First Review of Vocabulary and Grammar, §§502-505»

LESSON IX

THE SECOND OR O-DECLENSION

NOUNS «bellum, -ī», n., war (re-bel) «cōnstantia, -ae», f., firmness, constancy, steadiness dominus, -ī, m., master, lord (dominate) «equus, -ī», m., horse (equine) «frūmentum, -ī», n., grain «lēgātus, -ī», m., lieutenant, ambassador (legate) «Mārcus, -ī», m., Marcus, Mark «mūrus, -ī», m., wall (mural) «oppidānus, -ī», m., townsman «oppidum, -ī», n., town «pīlum, -ī», n., spear (pile driver) «servus, -ī», m., slave, servant Sextus, -ī, m., Sextus

VERBS «cūrat», he (she, it) cares for, with acc. «properat», he (she, it) hastens

«70.» Latin nouns are divided into five declensions.

The declension to which a noun belongs is shown by the ending of the genitive singular. This should always be learned along with the nominative and the gender.

«71.» The nominative singular of nouns of the Second or O-Declension ends in «-us», «-er», «-ir», or «-um». The genitive singular ends in «-ī».

«72.» «Gender.» Nouns in «-um» are neuter. The others are regularly masculine.

«73.» «Declension of nouns in -us and -um.» Masculines in «-us» and neuters in «-um» are declined as follows:

«dominus» (base «domin-»), «pīlum» (base «pīl-»), m., master n., spear

TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS SINGULAR Nom. do´minus[1] -us pīlum -um Gen. dominī -ī pīlī -ī Dat. dominō -ō pīlō -ō Acc. dominum -um pīlum -um Abl. dominō -ō pīlō -ō Voc. domine -e pīlum -um

PLURAL Nom. dominī -ī pīla -a Gen. dominō´rum -ōrum pīlō´rum -ōrum Dat. dominīs -īs pīlīs -īs Acc. dominōs -ōs pīla -a Abl. dominīs -īs pīlīs -īs

[Footnote 1: Compare the declension of «domina» and of «dominus».]

a. Observe that the masculines and the neuters have the same terminations excepting in the nominative singular and the nominative and accusative plural.

b. The vocative singular of words of the second declension in «-us» ends in «-ĕ», as «domine», O master; «serve», O slave. This is the most important exception to the rule in §56.a.

«74.» Write side by side the declension of «domina», «dominus», and «pīlum». A comparison of the forms will lead to the following rules, which are of great importance because they apply to all five declensions:

a. The vocative, with a single exception (see §73.b), is like the nominative. That is, the vocative singular is like the nominative singular, and the vocative plural is like the nominative plural.

b. The nominative, accusative, and vocative of neuter nouns are alike, and in the plural end in «-a».

c. The accusative singular of masculines and feminines ends in «-m» and the accusative plural in «-s».

d. The dative and ablative plural are always alike.

e. Final «-i» and «-o» are always long; final «-a» is short, except in the ablative singular of the first declension.

«75.» Observe the sentences

«Lesbia est bona», Lesbia is good «Lesbia est ancilla», Lesbia is a maidservant

We have learned (§55) that «bona», when used, as here, in the predicate to describe the subject, is called a predicate adjective. Similarly a noun, as «ancilla», used in the predicate to define the subject is called a «predicate noun».

«76.» RULE. «Predicate Noun.» A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb.

[Illustration: PILA]

«77.» DIALOGUE

GALBA AND MARCUS

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

G. Quis, Mārce, est lēgātus cum pīlō et tubā? M. Lēgātus, Galba, est Sextus. G. Ubi Sextus habitat?[2] M. In oppidō Sextus cum fīliābus habitat. G. Amantne oppidānī Sextum? M. Amant oppidānī Sextum et laudant, quod magnā cum cōnstantiā pugnat. G. Ubi, Mārce, est ancilla tua? Cūr nōn cēnam parat? M. Ancilla mea, Galba, equō lēgātī aquam et frūmentum dat. G. Cūr nōn servus Sextī equum dominī cūrat? M. Sextus et servus ad mūrum oppidī properant. Oppidānī bellum parant.[3]

[Footnote 2: «habitat» is here translated does live. Note the three possible translations of the Latin present tense: «habitat» he lives he is living he does live Always choose the translation which makes the best sense.]

[Footnote 3: Observe that the verb «parō» means not only to prepare but also to prepare for, and governs the accusative case.]

[Illustration: LEGATUS CUM PILO ET TUBA]

«78.» CONVERSATION

Translate the questions and answer them in Latin.

1. Ubi fīliae Sextī habitant? 2. Quem oppidānī amant et laudant? 3. Quid ancilla equō lēgātī dat? 4. Cuius equum ancilla cūrat? 5. Quis ad mūrum cum Sextō properat? 6. Quid oppidānī parant?

LESSON X

SECOND DECLENSION (Continued)

NOUNS «amīcus, -ī», m., friend (amicable) «Germānia, -ae», f., Germany «patria, -ae», f., fatherland «populus, -ī», m., people «Rhēnus, -ī», m., the Rhine «vīcus, -ī», m., village

«79.» We have been freely using feminine adjectives, like «bona», in agreement with feminine nouns of the first declension and declined like them. Masculine adjectives of this class are declined like «dominus», and neuters like pīlum. The adjective and noun, masculine and neuter, are therefore declined as follows:

MASCULINE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE NEUTER NOUN AND ADJECTIVE «dominus bonus», the good master «pīlum bonum», the good spear BASES domin- bon- BASES pīl- bon-

TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS SINGULAR Nom. do´minus bonus -us pīlum bonum -um Gen. dominī bonī -ī pīlī bonī -ī Dat. dominō bonō -ō pīlō bonō -ō Acc. dominum bonum -um pīlum bonum -um Abl. dominō bonō -ō pīlō bonō -ō Voc. domine bone -e pīlum bonum -um

PLURAL Nom. dominī bonī -ī īla bona -a Gen. dominō´rum bonō´rum -ōrum īlō´rum bonō´rum -ōrum Dat. dominīs bonīs -is īlīs bonīs -īs Acc. dominōs bonōs -ōs īla bona -a Abl. dominīs bonīs -īs īlīs bonīs -īs

Decline together «bellum longum», «equus parvus», «servus malus», «mūrus altus», «frūmentum novum».

«80.» Observe the sentences

«Lesbia ancilla est bona», Lesbia, the maidservant, is good «Fīlia Lesbiae ancillae est bona», the daughter of Lesbia, the maidservant, is good «Servus Lesbiam ancillam amat», the slave loves Lesbia, the maidservant

In these sentences «ancilla», «ancillae», and «ancillam» denote the class of persons to which Lesbia belongs and explain who she is. Nouns so related that the second is only another name for the first and explains it are said to be in apposition, and are always in the same case.

«81.» RULE. «Apposition.» An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains.

«82.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Patria servī bonī, vīcus servōrum bonōrum, bone popule. 2. Populus oppidī magnī, in oppidō magnō, in oppidīs magnīs. 3. Cum pīlīs longīs, ad pīla longa, ad mūrōs lātōs. 4. Lēgāte male, amīcī legātī malī, cēna grāta dominō bonō. 5. Frūmentum equōrum parvōrum, domine bone, ad lēgātōs clārōs. 6. Rhēnus est in Germāniā, patriā meā. 7. Sextus lēgātus pīlum longum portat. 8. Oppidānī bonī Sextō lēgātō clārā pecūniam dant. 9. Malī servī equum bonum Mārcī dominī necant. 10. Galba agricola et Iūlia fīlia bona labōrant. 11. Mārcus nauta in īnsulā Siciliā habitat.

II. 1. Wicked slave, who is your friend? Why does he not praise Galba, your master? 2. My friend is from («ex») a village of Germany, my fatherland. 3. My friend does not love the people of Italy. 4. Who is caring for[1] the good horse of Galba, the farmer? 5. Mark, where is Lesbia, the maidservant? 6. She is hastening[1] to the little cottage[2] of Julia, the farmer’s daughter.

[Footnote 1: See footnote 1, p. 33. Remember that «cūrat» is transitive and governs a direct object.]

[Footnote 2: Not the dative. (Cf. §43.)]

LESSON XI

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS

NOUNS «arma, armōrum», n., plur., arms, especially defensive weapons «fāma, -ae», f., rumor; reputation, fame «galea, -ae», f., helmet «praeda, -ae», f., booty, spoils (predatory) «tēlum, -ī», n., weapon of offense, spear

ADJECTIVES «dūrus, -a, -um», hard, rough; unfeeling, cruel; severe, toilsome (durable) «Rōmānus, -a, -um», Roman. As a noun, «Rōmānus, -ī», m., a Roman

«83.» Adjectives of the first and second declensions are declined in the three genders as follows:

MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER SINGULAR Nom. bonus bona bonum Gen. bonī bonae bonī Dat. bonō bonae bonō Acc. bonum bonam bonum Abl. bonō bonā bonō Voc. bone bona bonum

PLURAL Nom. bonī bonae bona Gen. bonōrum bonārum bonōrum Dat. bonīs bonīs bonīs Acc. bonōs bonās bona Abl. bonīs bonīs bonīs

a. Write the declension and give it orally across the page, thus giving the three genders for each case.

b. Decline «grātus, -a, -um»; «malus, -a, -um»; «altus, -a, -um»; «parvus, -a, -um».

«84.» Thus far the adjectives have had the same terminations as the nouns. However, the agreement between the adjective and its noun does not mean that they must have the same termination. If the adjective and the noun belong to different declensions, the terminations will, in many cases, not be the same. For example, «nauta», sailor, is masculine and belongs to the first declension. The masculine form of the adjective «bonus» is of the second declension. Consequently, a good sailor is «nauta bonus». So, the wicked farmer is «agricola malus». Learn the following declensions:

«85.» «nauta bonus» (bases naut- bon-), m., the good sailor

SINGULAR Nom. nauta bonus Gen. nautae bonī Dat. nautae bonō Acc. nautam bonum Abl. nautā bonō Voc. nauta bone

PLURAL Nom. nautae bonī Gen. nautārum bonōrum Dat. nautīs bonīs Acc. nautās bonōs Abl. nautīs bonīs Voc. nautae bonī

«86.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Est[1] in vīcō nauta bonus. 2. Sextus est amīcus nautae bonī. 3. Sextus nautae bonō galeam dat. 4. Populus Rōmānus nautam bonum laudat. 5. Sextus cum nautā bonō praedam portat. 6. Ubi, nauta bone, sunt arma et tēla lēgātī Rōmānī? 7. Nautae bonī ad bellum properant. 8. Fāma nautārum bonōrum est clāra. 9. Pugnae sunt grātae nautīs bonīs. 10. Oppidānī nautās bonōs cūrant. 11. Cūr, nautae bonī, malī agricolae ad Rhēnum properant? 12. Malī agricolae cum bonīs nautīs pugnant.

II. 1. The wicked farmer is hastening to the village with (his) booty. 2. The reputation of the wicked farmer is not good. 3. Why does Galba’s daughter give arms and weapons to the wicked farmer? 4. Lesbia invites the good sailor to dinner. 5. Why is Lesbia with the good sailor hastening from the cottage? 6. Sextus, where is my helmet? 7. The good sailors are hastening to the toilsome battle. 8. The horses of the wicked farmers are small. 9. The Roman people give money to the good sailors. 10. Friends care for the good sailors. 11. Whose friends are fighting with the wicked farmers?

[Footnote 1: «Est», beginning a declarative sentence, there is.]

[Illustration: GALEAE]

LESSON XII

NOUNS IN -IUS AND -IUM

NOUNS «fīlius, fīlī», m., son (filial) fluvius, fluvī, m., river (fluent) «gladius, gladī», m., sword (gladiator) «praesidium, praesi´dī», n., garrison, guard, protection «proelium, proelī», n., battle

ADJECTIVES «fīnitimus, -a, -um», bordering upon, neighboring, near to. As a noun, «fīnitimī, -ōrum», m., plur., neighbors «Germānus, -a, -um», German. As a noun, «Germānus, -ī», m., a German «multus, -a, -um», much; plur., many

ADVERB «saepe», often

«87.» Nouns of the second declension in «-ius» and «-ium» end in «-ī» in the genitive singular, not in «-iī», and the accent rests on the penult; as, «fīlī» from «fīlius» (son), «praesi´dī» from «praesi´dium» (garrison).

«88.» Proper names of persons in «-ius», and «fīlius», end in «-ī» in the vocative singular, not in «-ĕ», and the accent rests on the penult; as, «Vergi´lī», O Vergil; «fīlī», O son.

a. Observe that in these words the vocative and the genitive are alike.

«89.» «praesidium» (base praesidi-), «fīlius» (base fīli-), n., garrison m., son

SINGULAR Nom. praesidium fīlius Gen. praesi´dī fīlī Dat. praesidiō fīliō Acc. praesidium fīlium Abl. praesidiō fīliō Voc. praesidium fīlī

The plural is regular. Note that the «-i-» of the base is lost only in the genitive singular, and in the vocative of words like «fīlius».

Decline together «praesidium parvum»; «fīlius bonus»; «fluvius longus», the long river; «proelium clārum», the famous battle.

«90.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Frūmentum bonae terrae, gladī malī, bellī longī. 2. Cōnstantia magna, praesidia magna, clāre Vergi´lī. 3. Male serve, Ō clārum oppidum, male fīlī, fīliī malī, fīlī malī. 4. Fluvī longī, fluviī longī, fluviōrum longōrum, fāma praesi´dī magnī. 5. Cum gladiīs parvīs, cum deābus clārīs, ad nautās clārōs. 6. Multōrum proeliōrum, praedae magnae, ad proelia dūra.

GERMĀNIA

II. Germānia, patria Germānōrum, est clāra terra. In Germāniā sunt fluviī multī. Rhēnus magnus et lātus fluvius Germāniae est. In silvīs lātīs Germāniae sunt ferae multae. Multi Germāni in oppidīs magnis et in vīcīs parvīs habitant et multī sunt agricolae bonī. Bella Germānōrum sunt magna et clāra. Populus Germāniae bellum et proelia amat et saepe cum finitimīs pugnat. Fluvius Rhēnus est fīnitimus oppidīs[1] multīs et clārīs.

[Footnote 1: Dative with «fīnitimus». (See §43.)]

LESSON XIII

NOUNS «ager, agrī», m., field (acre) «cōpia, -ae», f., plenty, abundance (copious); plur., troops, forces «Cornēlius, Cornē´lī», m., Cornelius «lōrī´ca, -ae», f., coat of mail, corselet «praemium, praemī», n., reward, prize (premium) «puer, puerī», m., boy (puerile) «Rōma, -ae», f., Rome «scūtum, -ī», n., shield (escutcheon) «vir, virī», m., man, hero (virile)

ADJECTIVES «legiōnārius, -a, -um»,[A] legionary, belonging to the legion. As a noun, «legiōnāriī, -ōrum», m., plur., legionary soldiers «līber, lībera, līberum», free (liberty) As a noun. «līberī, -ōrum», m., plur., children (lit. the freeborn) «pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum», pretty, beautiful

PREPOSITION «apud», among, with acc.

CONJUNCTION «sed», but

[Footnote A: The genitive singular masculine of adjectives in «-ius» ends in «-iī» and the vocative in «-ie»; not in «-ī», as in nouns.]

«91.» «Declension of Nouns in -er and -ir.» In early Latin all the masculine nouns of the second declension ended in «-os». This «-os» later became «-us» in words like «servus», and was dropped entirely in words with bases ending in «-r», like «puer», boy; «ager», field; and «vir», man. These words are therefore declined as follows:

«92.» «puer», m., boy «ager», m., field «vir», m., man BASE «puer-» BASE «agr-» BASE «vir-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS Nom. puer ager vir ---- Gen. puerī agrī virī -ī Dat. puerō agrō virō -ō Acc. puerum agrum virum -um Abl. puerō agrō virō -ō

PLURAL Nom. puerī agrī virī -ī Gen. puerōrum agrōrum virōrum -ōrum Dat. puerīs agrīs virīs -īs Acc. puerōs agrōs virōs -ōs Abl. puerīs agrīs virīs -īs

a. The vocative case of these words is like the nominative, following the general rule (§74.a).

b. The declension differs from that of «servus» only in the nominative and vocative singular.

c. Note that in «puer» the «e» remains all the way through, while in «ager» it is present only in the nominative. In «puer» the «e» belongs to the base, but in «ager» (base «agr-») it does not, and was inserted in the nominative to make it easier to pronounce. Most words in «-er» are declined like «ager». The genitive shows whether you are to follow «puer» or «ager».

«93.» Masculine adjectives in «-er» of the second declension are declined like nouns in «-er». A few of them are declined like «puer», but most of them like «ager». The feminine and neuter nominatives show which form to follow, thus,

MASC. FEM. NEUT. līber lībera līberum (free) is like «puer» pulcher pulchra pulchrum (pretty) is like «ager»

For the full declension in the three genders, see §469.b. c.

«94.» Decline together the words «vir līber», «terra lībera», «frūmentum līberum», «puer pulcher», «puella pulchra», «oppidum pulchrum»

«95.» ITALIA[1]

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

Magna est Italiae fāma, patriae Rōmānōrum, et clāra est Rōma, domina orbis terrārum.[2] Tiberim,[3] fluvium Rōmānum, quis nōn laudat et pulchrōs fluviō fīnitimōs agrōs? Altōs mūrōs, longa et dūra bella, clārās victōriās quis nōn laudat? Pulchra est terra Italia. Agrī bonī agricolīs praemia dant magna, et equī agricolārum cōpiam frūmentī ad oppida et vīcōs portant. In agrīs populī Rōmānī labōrant multī servī. Viae Italiae sunt longae et lātae. Fīnitima Italiae est īnsula Sicilia.

[Footnote 1: In this selection note especially the emphasis as shown by the order of the words.]

[Footnote 2: «orbis terrārum», of the world.]

[Footnote 3: «Tiberim», the Tiber, accusative case.]

«96.» DIALOGUE

MARCUS AND CORNELIUS

C. Ubi est, Mārce, fīlius tuus? Estne in pulchrā terrā Italiā? M. Nōn est, Cornēlī, in Italiā. Ad fluvium Rhēnum properat cum cōpiīs Rōmānīs quia est[4] fāma Novī bellī cum Germānīs. Līber Germāniae populus Rōmānōs Nōn amat. C. Estne fīlius tuus copiārum Rōmānārum lēgātus? M. Lēgātus nōn est, sed est apud legiōnāriōs. C. Quae[5] arma portat[6]? M. Scūtum magnum et lōrīcam dūram et galeam pulchram portat. C. Quae tēla portat? M. Gladium et pīlum longum portat. C. Amatne lēgātus fīlium tuum? M. Amat, et saepe fīliō meō praemia pulchra et praedam multam dat. C. Ubi est terra Germānōrum? M. Terra Germānōrum, Cornēlī est fīnitima Rhēnō, fluviō magnō et altō.

[Footnote 4: «est», before its subject, there is; so «sunt», there are.]

[Footnote 5: «Quae», what kind of, an interrogative adjective pronoun.]

[Footnote 6: What are the three possible translations of the present tense?]

[Illustration: LEGIONARIUS]

LESSON XIV

THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS

NOUNS «auxilium, auxi´lī», n., help, aid (auxiliary) «castrum, -ī», n., fort (castle); plur., camp (lit. forts) «cibus, -ī», m., food «cōnsilium, cōnsi´lī», n., plan (counsel) «dīligentia, -ae», f.. diligence, industry magister, magistrī, m., master, teacher[A]

ADJECTIVES «aeger, aegra, aegrum», sick «crēber, crēbra, crēbrum», frequent «miser, misera, miserum», wretched, unfortunate (miser)

[Footnote A: Observe that «dominus», as distinguished from «magister», means master in the sense of owner.]

«97.» Observe the sentences

This is my shield This shield is mine

In the first sentence my is a possessive adjective; in the second mine is a possessive pronoun, for it takes the place of a noun, this shield is mine being equivalent to this shield is my shield. Similarly, in Latin the possessives are sometimes adjectives and sometimes pronouns.

«98.» The possessives my, mine, your, yours, etc. are declined like adjectives of the first and second declensions.

SINGULAR 1st Pers. meus, mea, meum my, mine 2d Pers. tuus, tua, tuum your, yours 3d Pers. suus, sua, suum his (own), her (own), its (own) PLURAL 1st Pers. noster, nostra, nostrum our, ours 2d Pers. vester, vestra, vestrum your, yours 3d Pers. suus, sua, suum their (own), theirs

NOTE. «Meus» has the irregular vocative singular masculine «mī», as «mī fīlī», O my son.

a. The possessives agree with the name of the thing possessed in gender, number, and case. Compare the English and Latin in

Sextus is calling «his» boy «Sextus» } «suum puerum vocat» Julia is calling «her» boy «Iūlia» }

Observe that «suum» agrees with «puerum», and is unaffected by the gender of Sextus or Julia.

b. When your, yours, refers to one person, use «tuus»; when to more than one, «vester»; as,

Lesbia, your wreaths are pretty «Corōnae tuae, Lesbia, sunt pulchrae» Girls, your wreaths are pretty «Corōnae vestrae, puellae, sunt pulchrae»

c. «Suus» is a reflexive possessive, that is, it usually stands in the predicate and regularly refers back to the subject. Thus, «Vir suōs servōs vocat» means The man calls his (own) slaves. Here his («suōs») refers to man («vir»), and could not refer to any one else.

d. Possessives are used much less frequently than in English, being omitted whenever the meaning is clear without them. (Cf. §22.a.) This is especially true of «suus, -a, -um», which, when inserted, is more or less emphatic, like our his own, her own, etc.

«99.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Mārcus amīcō Sextō cōnsilium suum nūntiat 2. Est cōpia frūmentī in agrīs nostrīs. 3. Amīcī meī bonam cēnam ancillae vestrae laudant 4. Tua lōrīca, mī fīlī, est dūra. 5. Scūta nostra et tēla, mī amīce, in castrls Rōmānīs sunt. 6. Suntne virī patriae tuae līberī? Sunt. 7. Ubi, Cornēlī, est tua galea pulchra? 8. Mea galea, Sexte, est in casā meā. 9. Pīlum longum est tuum, sed gladius est meus. 10. Iūlia gallīnās suās pulchrās amat et gallīnae dominam suam amant. 11. Nostra castra sunt vestra. 12. Est cōpia praedae in castrīs vestrīs. 13. Amīcī tuī miserīs et aegrīs cibum et pecūniam saepe dant.

II. 1. Our teacher praises Mark’s industry. 2. My son Sextus is carrying his booty to the Roman camp.[1] 3. Your good girls are giving aid to the sick and wretched.[2] 4. There are [3] frequent battles in our villages. 5. My son, where is the lieutenant’s food? 6. The camp is mine, but the weapons are yours.

[Footnote 1: Not the dative. Why?]

[Footnote 2: Here the adjectives sick and wretched are used like nouns.]

[Footnote 3: Where should «sunt» stand? Cf. I. 2 above.]

[Illustration: AGRICOLA ARAT]

LESSON XV

THE ABLATIVE DENOTING WITH

NOUNS «carrus, -ī», m., cart, wagon «inopia, -ae», f., want, lack; the opposite of «cōpia» «studium, studī», n., zeal, eagerness (study)

ADJECTIVES «armātus, -a, -um», armed «īnfīrmus, -a, -um», week, feeble (infirm) vali´dus, -a, -um, strong, sturdy

VERB «mātūrat», he (she, it) hastens. Cf. properat

ADVERB «iam», already, now

«-que», conjunction, and; an enclitic (cf. §16) and always added to the second of two words to be connected, as «arma tēla´que», arms and weapons.

«100.» Of the various relations denoted by the ablative case (§50) there is none more important than that expressed in English by the preposition with. This little word is not so simple as it looks. It does not always convey the same meaning, nor is it always to be translated by «cum». This will become clear from the following sentences:

a. Mark is feeble with (for or because of) want of food b. Diana kills the beasts with (or by) her arrows c. Julia is with Sextus d. The men fight with great steadiness

a. In sentence a, with want (of food) gives the cause of Mark’s feebleness. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the «ablative of cause»:

«Mārcus est īnfīrmus inopiā cibī»

b. In sentence b, with (or by) her arrows tells «by means of what» Diana kills the beasts. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the «ablative of means»:

«Diāna sagittīs suīs ferās necat»

c. In sentence c we are told that Julia is not alone, but «in company with» Sextus. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative with the preposition «cum», and the construction is called the «ablative of accompaniment»:

«Iūlia est cum Sextō»

d. In sentence d we are told how the men fight. The idea is one of «manner». This is expressed in Latin by the ablative with «cum», unless there is a modifying adjective present, in which case «cum» may be omitted. This construction is called the «ablative of manner»:

«Virī (cum) cōnstantiā magnā pugnant»

«101.» You are now able to form four important rules for the ablative denoting with:

«102.» RULE. «Ablative of Cause.» Cause is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what?

«103.» RULE. «Ablative of Means.» Means is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what? With what?

N.B. «Cum» must never be used with the ablative expressing cause or means.

«104.» RULE. «Ablative of Accompaniment.» Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative with «cum». This answers the question With whom?

«105.» RULE. «Ablative of Manner.» The ablative with «cum» is used to denote the manner of an action. «Cum» may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the ablative. This answers the question How? In what manner?

«106.» What uses of the ablative do you discover in the following passage, and what question does each answer?

The soldiers marched to the fort with great speed and broke down the gate with blows of their muskets. The inhabitants, terrified by the din, attempted to cross the river with their wives and children, but the stream was swollen with (or by) the rain. Because of this many were swept away by the waters and only a few, almost overcome with fatigue, with great difficulty succeeded in gaining the farther shore.

«107.» EXERCISES

I. The Romans prepare for War. Rōmānī, clārus Italiae populus, bellum parant. Ex agrīs suīs, vicīs, oppidīsque magnō studiō virī validī ad arma properant. Iam lēgatī cum legiōnariīs ex Italiā ad Rhēnum, fluvium Germāniae altum et lātum, properant, et servī equīs et carrīs cibum frūmentumque ad castra Rōmāna portant. Inopiā bonōrum tēlōrum īnfirmī sunt Germānī, sed Rōmānī armāti galeīs, lōrīcīs, scūtīs, gladiīs, pīlīsque sunt validī.

II. 1. The sturdy farmers of Italy labor in the fields with great diligence. 2. Sextus, the lieutenant, and (his) son Mark are fighting with the Germans. 3. The Roman legionaries are armed with long spears. 4. Where is Lesbia, your maid, Sextus? Lesbia is with my friends in Galba’s cottage. 5. Many are sick because of bad water and for lack of food. 6. The Germans, with (their) sons and daughters, are hastening with horses and wagons.

LESSON XVI

THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES

«108.» There are nine irregular adjectives of the first and second declensions which have a peculiar termination in the genitive and dative singular of all genders:

MASC. FEM. NEUT. Gen. -īus -īus -īus Dat. -ī -ī -ī

Otherwise they are declined like «bonus, -a, -um». Learn the list and the meaning of each:

«alius, alia, aliud», other, another (of several) «alter, altera, alterum», the one, the other (of two) «ūnus, -a, -um», one, alone; (in the plural) only «ūllus, -a, -um», any «nūllus, -a, -um», none, no «sōlus, -a, -um», alone «tōtus, -a, -um», all, whole, entire «uter, utra, utrum», which? (of two) «neuter, neutra, neutrum», neither (of two)

«109.» PARADIGMS

SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. nūllus nūlla nūllum Gen. nūllī´us nūllī´us nūllī´us Dat. nūllī nūllī nūllī Acc. nūllum nūllam nūllum Abl. nūllō nūllā nūllō

MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. alius alia aliud Gen. alī´us alī´us alī´us Dat. aliī aliī aliī Acc. alium aliam aliud Abl. aliō aliā aliō

THE PLURAL IS REGULAR

a. Note the peculiar neuter singular ending in «-d» of «alius». The genitive «alīus» is rare. Instead of it use «alterīus», the genitive of «alter».

b. These peculiar case endings are found also in the declension of pronouns (see §114). For this reason these adjectives are sometimes called the «pronominal adjectives».

«110.» Learn the following idioms:

«alter, -era, -erum» ... «alter, -era, -erum», the one ... the other (of two) «alius, -a, -ud» ... «alius, -a, -ud», one ... another (of any number) «aliī, -ae, -a» ... «aliī, -ae, -a», some ... others

EXAMPLES

1. «Alterum oppidum est magnum, alterum parvum», the one town is large, the other small (of two towns).

2. «Aliud oppidum est validum, aliud īnfīrmum», one town is strong, another weak (of towns in general).

3. «Aliī gladiōs, aliī scūta portant», some carry swords, others shields.

«111.» EXERCISES

I. 1. In utrā casā est Iūlia? Iūlia est in neutrā casā. 2. Nūllī malō puerō praemium dat magister. 3. Alter puer est nauta, alter agricola. 4. Aliī virī aquam, aliī terram amant. 5. Galba ūnus (or sōlus) cum studiō labōrat. 6. Estne ūllus carrus in agrō meō? 7. Lesbia est ancilla alterīus dominī, Tullia alterīus. 8. Lesbia sōla cēnam parat. 9. Cēna nūllīus alterīus ancillae est bona. 10. Lesbia nūllī aliī virō cēnam dat.

NOTE. The pronominal adjectives, as you observe, regularly stand before and not after their nouns.

II. 1. The men of all Germany are preparing for war. 2. Some towns are great and others are small. 3. One boy likes chickens, another horses. 4. Already the booty of one town is in our fort. 5. Our whole village is suffering for (i.e. weak because of) lack of food. 6. The people are already hastening to the other town. 7. Among the Romans (there) is no lack of grain.

LESSON XVII

THE DEMONSTRATIVE IS, EA, ID

NOUNS «agrī cultūra, -ae», f., agriculture «Gallia, -ae», f., Gaul «domicilīum, domīci´lī», n., dwelling place (domicile), abode «Gallus, -i», m., a Gaul «lacrima, -ae», f., tear «fēmina, -ae», f., woman (female) «numerus, -ī», m., number (numeral)

ADJECTIVE «mātūrus, -a, -um», ripe, mature

ADVERB quō, whither

VERBS arat, he (she, it) plows (arable) «dēsīderat», he (she, it) misses, longs for (desire), with acc.

CONJUNCTION «an», or, introducing the second half of a double question, as Is he a Roman or a Gaul, «Estne Romanus an Gallus?»

«112.» A demonstrative is a word that points out an object definitely, as this, that, these, those. Sometimes these words are pronouns, as, Do you hear these? and sometimes adjectives, as, Do you hear these men? In the former case they are called «demonstrative pronouns», in the latter «demonstrative adjectives».

«113.» Demonstratives are similarly used in Latin both as pronouns and as adjectives. The one used most is

«is», masculine; «ea», feminine; «id», neuter SINGULAR: this, that; PLURAL: these, those

«114.» «Is» is declined as follows. Compare its declension with that of «alius», §109.

BASE «e-»

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. is ea id eī eae ea (or iī) Gen. eius eius eius eōrum eārum eōrum Dat. eī eī eī eīs eīs eīs (or iīs iīs iīs) Acc. eum eam id eōs eās ea Abl. eō eā eō eīs eīs eīs (or iīs iīs iīs)

Note that the base «e-» changes to «i-» in a few cases. The genitive singular «eius» is pronounced eh´yus. In the plural the forms with two «i»’s are preferred and the two «i»’s are pronounced as one. Hence, pronounce «iī» as «ī» and «iīs» as «īs».

«115.» Besides being used as demonstrative pronouns and adjectives the Latin demonstratives are regularly used for the personal pronoun he, she, it. As a personal pronoun, then, «is» would have the following meanings:

SINGULAR Nom. «is», he; «ea», she; «id», it Gen. «eius», of him or his; «eius», of her, her, or hers; «eius», of it or its Dat. «eī», to or for him; «eī», to or for her; «eī», to or for it Acc. «eum», him; «eam», her; «id», it Abl. «eō», with, from, etc., him; «eā», with, from, etc., her; «eō», with, from, etc., it

PLURAL Nom. «eī» or «iī», «eae», «ea», they Gen. «eōrum», «eārum», «eōrum», of them, their Dat. «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», to or for them Acc. «eōs, eās, ea», them Abl. «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», with, from, etc., them

«116.» «Comparison between suus and is.» We learned above (§98.c) that «suus» is a reflexive possessive. When his, her (poss.), its, their, do not refer to the subject of the sentence, we express his, her, its by «eius», the genitive singular of «is», «ea», «id»; and their by the genitive plural, using «eōrum» to refer to a masculine or neuter antecedent noun and «eārum» to refer to a feminine one.

Galba calls his (own) son, «Galba suum fīlium vocat» Galba calls his son (not his own, but another’s), «Galba eius fīlium vocat» Julia calls her (own) children, «Iūlia suōs līberōs vocat» Julia calls her children (not her own, but another’s), «Iūlia eius līberōs vocat» The men praise their (own) boys, «virī suōs puerōs laudant» The men praise their boys (not their own, but others’), «virī eōrum puerōs laudant»

«117.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

1. He praises her, him, it, them. 2. This cart, that report, these teachers, those women, that abode, these abodes. 3. That strong garrison, among those weak and sick women, that want of firmness, those frequent plans.

4. The other woman is calling her chickens (her own). 5. Another woman is calling her chickens (not her own). 6. The Gaul praises his arms (his own). 7. The Gaul praises his arms (not his own). 8. This farmer often plows their fields. 9. Those wretched slaves long for their master (their own). 10. Those wretched slaves long for their master (not their own). 11. Free men love their own fatherland. 12. They love its villages and towns.

«118.» DIALOGUE[1]

CORNELIUS AND MARCUS

M. Quis est vir, Cornēlī, cum puerō parvō? Estne Rōmānus et līber? C. Rōmānus nōn est, Mārce. Is vir est servus et eius domicilium est in silvīs Galliae. M. Estne puer fīlius eius servī an alterīus? C. Neutrīus fīlius est puer. Is est fīlius lēgātī Sextī. M. Quō puer cum eō servō properat? C. Is cum servō properat ad lātōs Sextī agrōs.[2] Tōtum frūmentum est iam mātūrum et magnus servōrum numerus in Italiae[3] agrīs labōrat. M. Agricolaene sunt Gallī et patriae suae agrōs arant? C. Nōn agricolae sunt. Bellum amant Gallī, nōn agrī cultūram. Apud eōs virī pugnant et fēminae auxiliō līberōrum agrōs arant parantque cibum. M. Magister noster puerīs puellīsque grātās Gallōrum fābulās saepe nārrat et laudat eōs saepe. C. Mala est fortūna eōrum et saepe miserī servī multīs cum lacrimīs patriam suam dēsīderant.

[Footnote 1: There are a number of departures from the normal order in this dialogue. Find them, and give the reason.]

[Footnote 2: When a noun is modified by both a genitive and an adjective, a favorite order of words is adjective, genitive, noun.]

[Footnote 3: A modifying genitive often stands between a preposition and its object.]

«Second Review, Lessons IX-XVII, §§506-509»

LESSON XVIII

«CONJUGATION» THE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE TENSES OF «SUM»

NOUNS lūdus, -ī, m.,school «socius, socī», m., companion, ally (social)

ADJECTIVES «īrātus, -a, -um», angry, furious (irate) «laetus, -a, -um», happy, glad (social)

ADVERBS hodiē, to-day «ibi», there, in that place mox, presently, soon, of the immediate future «nunc», now, the present moment «nūper», lately, recently, of the immediate past

«119.» The inflection of a verb is called its conjugation (cf. §23). In English the verb has but few changes in form, the different meanings being expressed by the use of personal pronouns and auxiliaries, as, I am carried, we have carried, they shall have carried, etc. In Latin, on the other hand, instead of using personal pronouns and auxiliary verbs, the form changes with the meaning. In this way the Romans expressed differences in tense, mood, voice, person, and number.

«120.» «The Tenses.» The different forms of a verb referring to different times are called its tenses. The chief distinctions of time are present, past, and future:

1. «The present», that is, what is happening now, or what usually happens, is expressed by THE PRESENT TENSE

2. «The past», that is, what was happening, used to happen, happened, has happened, or had happened, is expressed by THE IMPERFECT, PERFECT, AND PLUPERFECT TENSES

3. «The future», that is, what is going to happen, is expressed by THE FUTURE AND FUTURE PERFECT TENSES

«121.» «The Moods.» Verbs have inflection of mood to indicate the manner in which they express action. The moods of the Latin verb are the indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive.

a. A verb is in the indicative mood when it makes a statement or asks a question about something assumed as a fact. All the verbs we have used thus far are in the present indicative.

«122.» «The Persons.» There are three persons, as in English. The first person is the person speaking (I sing); the second person the person spoken to (you sing); the third person the person spoken of (he sings). Instead of using personal pronouns for the different persons in the two numbers, singular and plural, the Latin verb uses the personal endings (cf. §22 a; 29). We have already learned that «-t» is the ending of the third person singular in the active voice and «-nt» of the third person plural. The complete list of personal endings of the active voice is as follows:

SINGULAR PLURAL 1st Pers. I -m or -ō we -mus 2d Pers. thou or you -s you -tis 3d Pers. he, she, it -t they -nt

«123.» Most verbs form their moods and tenses after a regular plan and are called regular verbs. Verbs that depart from this plan are called irregular. The verb to be is irregular in Latin as in English. The present, imperfect, and future tenses of the indicative are inflected as follows:

PRESENT INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL 1st Pers. su-m, I am su-mus, we are 2d Pers. e-s, you[1] are es-tis, you[1] are 3d Pers. es-t, he, she, or it is su-nt, they are

IMPERFECT INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL 1st Pers. er-a-m, I was er-ā´-mus, we were 2d Pers. er-ā-s, you were er-ā´-tis, you were 3d Pers. er-a-t, he, she, or it was er-a-nt, they were

FUTURE INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL 1st Pers. er-ō, I shall be er´-i-mus, we shall be 2d Pers. er-i-s, you will be er´-i-tis, you will be 3d Pers. er-i-t, he will be er-u-nt, they will be

a. Be careful about vowel quantity and accent in these forms, and consult §§12.2; 14; 15.

[Footnote 1: Observe that in English you are, you were, etc. may be either singular or plural. In Latin the singular and plural forms are never the same.]

«124.» DIALOGUE

THE BOYS SEXTUS AND MARCUS

S. Ubi es, Mārce? Ubi est Quīntus? Ubi estis, amīcī? M. Cum Quīntō, Sexte, in silvā sum. Nōn sōlī sumus; sunt in silvā multī aliī puerī. S. Nunc laetus es, sed nūper nōn laetus erās. Cūr miser erās? M. Miser eram quia amīcī meī erant in aliō vicō et eram sōlus. Nunc sum apud sociōs meōs. Nunc laetī sumus et erimus. S. Erātisne in lūdo hodiē? M. Hodiē nōn erāmus in lūdō, quod magister erat aeger. S. Eritisne mox in lūdō? M. Amīcī meī ibi erunt, sed ego (I) nōn erō. S. Cūr nōn ibi eris? Magister, saepe irātus, inopiam tuam studī dīligentiaeque nōn laudat. M. Nūper aeger eram et nunc īnfīrmus sum.

«125.» EXERCISE

1. You are, you were, you will be, (sing. and plur.). 2. I am, I was, I shall be. 3. He is, he was, he will be. 4. We are, we were, we shall be. 5. They are, they were, they will be.

6. Why were you not in school to-day? I was sick. 7. Lately he was a sailor, now he is a farmer, soon he will be a teacher. 8. To-day I am happy, but lately I was wretched. 9. The teachers were happy because of the boys’ industry.

[Illustration: PUERI ROMANI IN LUDO]

LESSON XIX

THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF AMŌ AND MONEŌ

«126.» There are four conjugations of the regular verbs. These conjugations are distinguished from each other by the final vowel of the present conjugation-stem.[1] This vowel is called the distinguishing vowel, and is best seen in the present infinitive.

[Footnote 1: The stem is the body of a word to which the terminations are attached. It is often identical with the base (cf. §58). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional terminations. This point is further explained in §230.]

Below is given the present infinitive of a verb of each conjugation, the present stem, and the distinguishing vowel.

DISTINGUISHING CONJUGATION PRES. INFIN. PRES. STEM VOWEL I. «amā´re», to love «amā-» «ā» II. «monē´re», to advise «monē-» «ē» III. «re´gĕre», to rule «regĕ-» «ĕ» IV. «audī´re», to hear «audi-» «ī»

a. Note that the present stem of each conjugation is found by dropping «-re», the ending of the present infinitive.

NOTE. The present infinitive of «sum» is «esse», and «es-» is the present stem.

«127.» From the present stem are formed the present, imperfect, and future tenses.

«128.» The inflection of the Present Active Indicative of the first and of the second conjugation is as follows:

«a´mō, amā´re» (love) «mo´neō, monē´re» (advise) PRES. STEM «amā-» PRES. STEM «monē-»

SINGULAR PLURAL PERSONAL ENDINGS 1. a´mō, I love mo´neō, I advise -ō 2. a´mās, you love mo´nēs, you advise -s 3. a´mat, he (she, it) loves mo´net, he (she, it) advises -t

1. amā´mus, we love monē´mus, we advise -mus 2. amā´tis, you love monē´tis, you advise -tis 3. a´mant, they love mo´nent, they advise -nt

1. The present tense is inflected by adding the personal endings to the present stem, and its first person uses «-o» and not «-m». The form «amō» is for «amā-ō», the two vowels «ā-ō» contracting to «ō». In «moneō» there is no contraction. Nearly all regular verbs ending in «-eo» belong to the second conjugation.

2. Note that the long final vowel of the stem is shortened before another vowel («monē-ō» = «mo´nĕō»), and before final «-t» («amăt», «monĕt») and «-nt» («amănt», «monĕnt»). Compare §12.2.

«129.» Like «amō» and «moneō» inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs[2]:

[Footnote 2: The only new verbs in this list are the five of the second conjugation which are starred. Learn their meanings.]

INDICATIVE PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT a´rō, I plow arā´re, to plow cū´rō, I care for cūrā´re, to care for *dē´leō, I destroy dēlē´re, to destroy dēsī´derō, I long for dēsīderā´re, to long for dō,[3] I give da´re, to give *ha´beō, I have habē´re, to have ha´bitō, I live, I dwell habitā´re, to live, to dwell *iu´beō, I order iubē´re, to order labō´rō, I labor labōrā´re, to labor lau´dō, I praise laudā´re, to praise mātū´rō, I hasten mātūrā´re, to hasten *mo´veō, I move movē´re, to move nār´rō, I tell nārrā´re, to tell ne´cō, I kill necā´re, to kill nūn´tiō, I announce nūntiā´re, to announce pa´rō, I prepare parā´re, to prepare por´tō, I carry portā´re, to carry pro´perō, I hasten properā´re, to hasten pug´nō, I fight pugnā´re, to fight *vi´deō, I see vidē´re, to see vo´cō, I call vocā´re, to call

[Footnote 3: Observe that in «dō, dăre», the «a» is short, and that the present stem is «dă-» and not «dā-». The only forms of «dō» that have a long are «dās» (pres. indic.), «dā» (pres. imv.), and «dāns» (pres. part.).]

«130.» «The Translation of the Present.» In English there are three ways of expressing present action. We may say, for example, I live, I am living, or I do live. In Latin the one expression «habitō» covers all three of these expressions.

«131.» EXERCISES

Give the voice, mood, tense, person, and number of each form.

I. 1. Vocāmus, properātis, iubent. 2. Movētis, laudās, vidēs. 3. Dēlētis, habētis, dant. 4. Mātūrās, dēsīderat, vidēmus. 5. Iubet, movent, necat. 6. Nārrāmus, movēs, vident. 7. Labōrātis, properant, portās, parant. 8. Dēlet, habētis, iubēmus, dās.

N.B. Observe that the personal ending is of prime importance in translating a Latin verb form. Give that your first attention.

II. 1. We plow, we are plowing, we do plow. 2. They care for, they are caring for, they do care for. 3. You give, you are having, you do have (sing.). 4. We destroy, I do long for, they are living. 5. He calls, they see, we are telling. 6. We do fight, we order, he is moving, he prepares. 7. They are laboring, we kill, you announce.

LESSON XX

IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF AMŌ AND MONEŌ

NOUNS «fōrma, -ae», f., form, beauty «regīna, -ae», f., queen (regal) «poena, -ae», f., punishment, penalty superbia, -ae, f., pride, haughtiness «potentia, -ae», f., power (potent) «trīstītīa, -ae», f., sadness, sorrow

ADJECTIVES «septem», indeclinable, seven «superbus, -a, -um», proud, haughty (superb)

CONJUNCTIONS «nōn sōlum ... sed etiam», not only ... but also

«132.» «Tense Signs.» Instead of using auxiliary verbs to express differences in tense, like was, shall, will, etc., Latin adds to the verb stem certain elements that have the force of auxiliary verbs. These are called tense signs.

«133.» «Formation and Inflection of the Imperfect.» The tense sign of the imperfect is «-bā-», which is added to the present stem. The imperfect consists, therefore, of three parts:

PRESENT STEM TENSE SIGN PERSONAL ENDING «amā-» «ba-» «m» loving was I

The inflection is as follows:

CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II PERSONAL SINGULAR ENDINGS 1. amā´bam, I was loving monē´bam, I was advising -m 2. amā´bās, you were loving monē´bās, you were advising -s 3. amā´bat, he was loving monē´bat, he was advising -t

PLURAL 1. amābā´mus, we were loving monēbā´mus, we were advising -mus 2. amābā´tis, you were loving monēbā´tis, you were advising -tis 3. amā´bant, they were loving monē´bant, they wereadvising -nt

a. Note that the «ā» of the tense sign «-bā-» is shortened before «-nt», and before «m» and «t» when final. (Cf. §12.2.)

In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §129.

«134.» «Meaning of the Imperfect.» The Latin imperfect describes an act as going on or progressing in past time, like the English past-progressive tense (as, I was walking). It is the regular tense used to describe a past situation or condition of affairs.

«135.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Vidēbāmus, dēsīderābat, mātūrābās. 2. Dabant, vocābātis, dēlēbāmus. 3. Pugnant, laudābās, movēbātis. 4. Iubēbant, properābātis, portābāmus. 5. Dabās, nārrābant, labōrābātis. 6. Vidēbant, movēbās, nūntiābāmus. 7. Necābat, movēbam, habēbat, parābātis.

II. 1. You were having (sing. and plur.), we were killing, they were laboring. 2. He was moving, we were ordering, we were fighting. 3. We were telling, they were seeing, he was calling. 4. They were living, I was longing for, we were destroying. 5. You were giving, you were moving, you were announcing, (sing. and plur.). 6. They were caring for, he was plowing, we were praising.

«136.» NI´OBE AND HER CHILDREN

Niobē, rēgina Thēbānōrum, erat pulchra fēmina sed superba. Erat superba nōn sōlum fōrmā[1] suā marītīque potentiā[1] sed etiam magnō līberōrum numerō.[1] Nam habēbat[2] septem fīliōs et septem fīliās. Sed ea superbia erat rēgīnae[3] causa magnae trīstitiae et līberīs[3] causa dūrae poenae.

NOTE. The words «Niobē», «Thēbānōrum», and «marītī» will be found in the general vocabulary. Translate the selection without looking up any other words.

[Footnote 1: Ablative of cause.]

[Footnote 2: Translate had; it denotes a past situation. (See §134.)]

[Footnote 3: Dative, cf. §43.]

LESSON XXI

FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF AMŌ AND MONEŌ

NOUNS sacrum, -ī, n., sacrifice, offering, rite «verbum, -ī», n., word (verb)

VERBS sedeō, -ēre, sit (sediment) volō, -āre, fly (volatile)

ADJECTIVES «interfectus, -a, -um», slain «molestus, -a, -um», troublesome, annoying (molest) «perpetuus, -a, -um», perpetual, continuous

«ego», personal pronoun, I (egotism). Always emphatic in the nominative.

«137.» The tense sign of the Future Indicative in the first and second conjugations is «-bi-». This is joined to the present stem of the verb and followed by the personal ending, as follows:

PRESENT STEM TENSE SIGN PERSONAL ENDING «amā-» «bi-» «s» love will you

«138.» The Future Active Indicative is inflected as follows.

CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II SINGULAR 1. amā´bō, I shall love monē´bō, I shall advise 2. amā´bis, you will love monē´bis, you will advise 3. amā´bit, he will love monē´bit, he will advise

PLURAL 1. amā´bimus, we shall love monē´bimus, we shall advise 2. amā´bitis you will love monē´bitis, you will advise 3. amā´bunt, they will love monē´bunt, they will advise

a. The personal endings are as in the present. The ending «-bō» in the first person singular is contracted from «-bi-ō». The «-bi-» appears as «-bu-» in the third person plural. Note that the inflection is like that of «erō», the future of «sum». Pay especial attention to the accent.

«139.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Movēbitis, laudābis, arābō. 2. Dēlēbitis, vocābitis, dabunt. 3. Mātūrābis, dēsīderābit, vidēbimus. 4. Habēbit, movēbunt, necābit. 5. Nārrābimus, monēbis, vidēbunt. 6. Labōrābitis, cūrābunt, dabis. 7. Habitābimus, properābitis, iubēbunt, parābit. 8. Nūntiābō, portābimus, iubēbō.

II. 1. We shall announce, we shall see, I shall hasten. 2. I shall carry, he will plow, they will care for. 3. You will announce, you will move, you will give, (sing. and plur.). 4. We shall fight, we shall destroy, I shall long for. 5. He will call, they will see, you will tell (plur.). 6. They will dwell, we shall order, he will praise. 7. They will labor, we shall kill, you will have (sing. and plur.), he will destroy.

«140.» NI´OBE AND HER CHILDREN (Concluded)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Apollō et Diāna erant līberī Lātōnae. Iīs Thēbānī sacra crēbra parābant.[1] Oppidānī amābant Lātōnam et līberōs eius. Id superbae rēgīnae erat molestum. “Cūr,” inquit, “Lātōnae et līberīs sacra parātis? Duōs līberōs habet Lātōna; quattuordecim habeō ego. Ubi sunt mea sacra?” Lātōna iīs verbīs[2] īrāta līberōs suōs vocat. Ad eam volant Apollō Diānaque et sagittīs[3] suīs miserōs līberōs rēgīnae superbae dēlent. Niobē, nūper laeta, nunc misera, sedet apud līberōs interfectōs et cum perpetuīs lacrimīs[4] eōs dēsīderat.

NOTE. Consult the general vocabulary for «Apollō», «inquit», «duōs», and «quattuordecim». Try to remember the meaning of all the other words.

[Footnote 1: Observe the force of the imperfect here, used to prepare, were in the habit of preparing; so «amābant» denotes a past situation of affairs. (See §134.)]

[Footnote 2: Ablative of cause.]

[Footnote 3: Ablative of means.]

[Footnote 4: This may be either manner or accompaniment. It is often impossible to draw a sharp line between means, manner, and accompaniment. The Romans themselves drew no sharp distinction. It was enough for them if the general idea demanded the ablative case.]

LESSON XXII

REVIEW OF VERBS · THE DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES

NOUNS «disciplīna, -ae», f., training, culture, discipline «Gāius, Gāī», m., Caius, a Roman first name «ōrnāmentum, -ī», n., ornament, jewel Tiberius, Tibe´rī, m., Tiberius, a Roman first name

VERB «doceō, -ēre», teach (doctrine)

ADVERB «maximē», most of all, especially

ADJECTIVE «antīquus, -qua, -quum», old, ancient (antique)

«141.» Review the present, imperfect, and future active indicative, both orally and in writing, of «sum» and the verbs in §129.

«142.» We learned in §43 for what sort of expressions we may expect the dative, and in §44 that one of its commonest uses is with verbs to express the indirect object. It is also very common with adjectives to express the object toward which the quality denoted by the adjective is directed. We have already had a number of cases where «grātus», agreeable to, was so followed by a dative; and in the last lesson we had «molestus», annoying to, followed by that case. The usage may be more explicitly stated by the following rule:

«143.» RULE. «Dative with Adjectives.» The dative is used with adjectives to denote the object toward which the given quality is directed. Such are, especially, those meaning «near», also «fit», «friendly», «pleasing», «like», and their opposites.

«144.» Among such adjectives memorize the following:

«idōneus, -a, -um», fit, suitable (for) «amīcus, -a, -um», friendly (to) «inimīcus, -a, -um», hostile (to) «grātus, -a, -um», pleasing (to), agreeable (to) «molestus, -a, -um», annoying (to), troublesome (to) «fīnitimus, -a, -um», neighboring (to) «proximus, -a, -um», nearest, next (to)

«145.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Rōmānī terram idōneam agrī cultūrae habent. 2. Gallī cōpiīs Rōmānīs inimīcī erant. 3. Cui dea Lātōna amīca non erat? 4. Dea Lātōna superbae rēgīnae amīca nōn erat. 5. Cibus noster, Mārce, erit armātīs virīs grātus. 6. Quid erat molestum populīs Italiae? 7. Bella longa cum Gallīs erant molesta populīs Italiae. 8. Agrī Germānōrum fluviō Rhēnō fīnitimī erant. 9. Rōmānī ad silvam oppidō proximam castra movēbant. 10. Nōn sōlum fōrma sed etiam superbia rēgīnae erat magna. 11. Mox rēgīna pulchra erit aegra trīstitiā. 12. Cūr erat Niobē, rēgīna Thēbānōrum, laeta? Laeta erat Niobē multīs fīliīs et fīliābus.

II. 1. The sacrifices of the people will be annoying to the haughty queen. 2. The sacrifices were pleasing not only to Latona but also to Diana. 3. Diana will destroy those hostile to Latona. 4. The punishment of the haughty queen was pleasing to the goddess Diana. 5. The Romans will move their forces to a large field[1] suitable for a camp. 6. Some of the allies were friendly to the Romans, others to the Gauls.

[Footnote 1: Why not the dative?]

«146.» CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS

Apud antīquās dominās, Cornēlia, Āfricānī fīlia, erat[2] maximē clāra. Fīliī eius erant Tiberius Gracchus et Gāius Gracchus. Iī puerī cum Cornēliā in oppidō Rōmā, clārō Italiae oppidō, habitābant. Ibi eōs cūrābat Cornēlia et ibi magnō cum studiō eōs docēbat. Bona fēmina erat Cornēlia et bonam disciplīnam maximē amābat.

NOTE. Can you translate the paragraph above? There are no new words.

[Footnote 2: Observe that all the imperfects denote continued or progressive action, or describe a state of affairs. (Cf. §134.)]

LESSON XXIII

PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF REGŌ AND AUDIŌ

«147.» As we learned in §126, the present stem of the third conjugation ends in «-ĕ», and of the fourth in «-ī». The inflection of the Present Indicative is as follows:

CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV «re´gō, re´gere» (rule) «au´diō, audī´re» (hear) PRES. STEM «regĕ-» PRES. STEM «audī-»

SINGULAR 1. re´gō, I rule au´diō, I hear 2. re´gis, you rule au´dīs, you hear 3. re´git, he (she, it) rules au´dit, he (she, it) hears

PLURAL 1. re´gimus, we rule audī´mus, we hear 2. re´gitis, you rule audī´tis, you hear 3. re´gunt, they rule au´diunt, they hear

1. The personal endings are the same as before.

2. The final short «-e-» of the stem «regĕ-» combines with the «-ō» in the first person, becomes «-u-» in the third person plural, and becomes «-ĭ-» elsewhere. The inflection is like that of «erō», the future of «sum».

3. In «audiō» the personal endings are added regularly to the stem «audī-». In the third person plural «-u-» is inserted between the stem and the personal ending, as «audi-u-nt». Note that the long vowel of the stem is shortened before final «-t» just as in «amō» and «moneō». (Cf. §12.2.)

Note that «-i-» is always short in the third conjugation and long in the fourth, excepting where long vowels are regularly shortened. (Cf. §12.1, 2.)

«148.» Like «regō» and «audiō» inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs:

INDICATIVE PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT

agō, I drive agere, to drive dīcō, I say dīcere, to say dūcō, I lead dūcere, to lead mittō, I send mittere, to send mūniō, I fortify mūnīre, to fortify reperiō, I find reperīre, to find veniō, I come venīre, to come

«149.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Quis agit? Cūr venit? Quem mittit? Quem dūcis? 2. Quid mittunt? Ad quem veniunt? Cuius castra mūniunt? 3. Quem agunt? Venīmus. Quid puer reperit? 4. Quem mittimus? Cuius equum dūcitis? Quid dīcunt? 5. Mūnīmus, venītis, dīcit. 6. Agimus, reperītis, mūnīs. 7. Reperis, ducitis, dīcis. 8. Agitis, audimus, regimus.

II. 1. What do they find? Whom do they hear? Why does he come? 2. Whose camp are we fortifying? To whom does he say? What are we saying? 3. I am driving, you are leading, they are hearing. 4. You send, he says, you fortify (sing. and plur.). 5. I am coming, we find, they send. 6. They lead, you drive, he does fortify. 7. You lead, you find, you rule, (all plur.).

«150.» CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS (Concluded)

Proximum domicīliō Cornēliae erat pulchrae Campānae domicilium. Campāna erat superba nōn sōlum fōrmā suā sed maximē ōrnāmentīs suīs. Ea[1] laudābat semper. “Habēsne tū ūlla ornāmenta, Cornēlia?” inquit. “Ubi sunt tua ōrnāmenta?” Deinde Cornēlia fīliōs suōs Tiberium et Gāium vocat. “Puerī meī,” inquit, “sunt mea ōrnāmenta. Nam bonī līberī sunt semper bonae fēminae ōrnāmenta maximē clāra.”

NOTE. The only new words here are «Campāna», «semper», and «tū».

[Footnote 1: «Ea», accusative plural neuter.]

[Illustration: “PUERI MEI SUNT MEA ORNAMENTA”]

LESSON XXIV

IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF REGŌ AND AUDIŌ THE DATIVE WITH SPECIAL INTRANSITIVE VERBS

«151.» PARADIGMS

CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV SINGULAR 1. regē´bam, I was ruling audiē´bam, I was hearing 2. regē´bās, you were riding audiē´bās, you were hearing 3. regē´bat, he was ruling audiē´bat, he was hearing

PLURAL 1. regēbā´mus, we were ruling audiēbā´mus, we were hearing 2. regēbā´tis, you were ruling audiēbā´tis, you were hearing 3. regē´bant, they were ruling audiē´bant, they were hearing

1. The tense sign is «-bā-», as in the first two conjugations.

2. Observe that the final «-ĕ-» of the stem is lengthened before the tense sign «-bā-». This makes the imperfect of the third conjugation just like the imperfect of the second (cf. «monēbam» and «regēbam»).

3. In the fourth conjugation «-ē-» is inserted between the stem and the tense sign «-bā-» («audi-ē-ba-m»).

4. In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §148.

«152.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Agēbat, veniēbat, mittēbat, dūcēbant. 2. Agēbant, mittēbant, dūcēbas, mūniēbant. 3. Mittēbāmus, dūcēbātis, dīcēbant. 4. Mūniēbāmus, veniēbātis, dīcēbās. 5. Mittēbās, veniēbāmus, reperiēbat. 6. Reperiēbās, veniēbās, audiēbātis. 7. Agēbāmus, reperiēbātis, mūniēbat. 8. Agēbātis, dīcēbam, mūniēbam.

II. 1. They were leading, you were driving (sing. and plur.), he was fortifying. 2. They were sending, we were finding, I was coming. 3. You were sending, you were fortifying, (sing. and plur.), he was saying. 4. They were hearing, you were leading (sing. and plur.), I was driving. 5. We were saying, he was sending, I was fortifying. 6. They were coming, he was hearing, I was finding. 7. You were ruling (sing. and plur.), we were coming, they were ruling.

«153.» «The Dative with Special Intransitive Verbs.» We learned above (§20.a) that a verb which does not admit of a direct object is called an intransitive verb. Many such verbs, however, are of such meaning that they can govern an indirect object, which will, of course, be in the dative case (§45). Learn the following list of intransitive verbs with their meanings. In each case the dative indirect object is the person or thing to which a benefit, injury, or feeling is directed. (Cf. §43.)

«crēdō, crēdere», believe (give belief to) «faveō, favēre», favor (show favor to) «noceō, nocēre», injure (do harm to) «pāreō, pārēre», obey (give obedience to) «persuādeō, persuādēre», persuade (offer persuasion to) «resistō, resistere», resist (offer resistance to) «studeō, studēre», be eager for (give attention to)

«154.» RULE. «Dative with Intransitive Verbs.» The dative of the indirect object is used with the intransitive verbs «crēdō», «faveō», «noceō», «pāreō», «persuādeō», «resistō», «studeō», and others of like meaning.

«155.» EXERCISE

1. Crēdisne verbīs sociōrum? Multī verbīs eōrum nōn crēdunt. 2. Meī fīnitimī cōnsiliō tuō nōn favēbunt, quod bellō student. 3. Tiberius et Gāius disciplīnae dūrae nōn resistēbant et Cornēliae pārēbant. 4. Dea erat inimīca septem fīliābus rēgīnae. 5. Dūra poena et perpetua trīstitia rēgīnae nōn persuādēbunt. 6. Nūper ea resistēbat et nunc resistit potentiae Lātōnae. 7. Mox sagittae volābunt et līberīs miserīs nocēbunt.

LESSON XXV

FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF REGŌ AND AUDIŌ

«156.» In the future tense of the third and fourth conjugations we meet with a new tense sign. Instead of using «-bi-», as in the first and second conjugations, we use «-ā-»[1] in the first person singular and «-ē-» in the rest of the tense. In the third conjugation the final «-ĕ-» of the stem is dropped before this tense sign; in the fourth conjugation the final «-ī-» of the stem is retained.[2]

[Footnote 1: The «-ā-» is shortened before «-m» final, and «-ē-» before «-t» final and before «-nt». (Cf. §12.2.)]

[Footnote 2: The «-ī-» is, of course, shortened, being before another vowel. (Cf. §12.1.)]

«157.» PARADIGMS

CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV SINGULAR 1. re´gam, I shall rule au´diam, I shall hear 2. re´gēs, you will rule au´diēs, you will hear 3. re´get, he will rule au´diet, he will hear

PLURAL 1. regē´mus, we shall rule audiē´mus, we shall hear 2. regē´tis, you will rule audiē´tis, you will hear 3. re´gent, they will rule au´dient, they will hear

1. Observe that the future of the third conjugation is like the present of the second, excepting in the first person singular.

2. In the same manner inflect the verbs given in §148.

«158.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Dīcet, dūcētis, mūniēmus. 2. Dīcent, dīcētis, mittēmus. 3. Mūnient, venient, mittent, agent. 4. Dūcet, mittēs, veniet, aget. 5. Mūniet, reperiētis, agēmus. 6. Mittam, veniēmus, regent. 7. Audiētis, veniēs, reperiēs. 8. Reperiet, agam, dūcēmus, mittet. 9. Vidēbitis, sedēbō, vocābimus.

II. 1. I shall find, he will hear, they will come. 2. I shall fortify, he will send, we shall say. 3. I shall drive, you will lead, they will hear. 4. You will send, you will fortify, (sing. and plur.), he will say. 5. I shall come, we shall find, they will send.

6. Who[3] will believe the story? I[4] shall believe the story. 7. Whose friends do you favor? We favor our friends. 8. Who will resist our weapons? Sextus will resist your weapons. 9. Who will persuade him? They will persuade him. 10. Why were you injuring my horse? I was not injuring your horse. 11. Whom does a good slave obey? A good slave obeys his master. 12. Our men were eager for another battle.

[Footnote 3: Remember that «quis», who, is singular in number.]

[Footnote 4: Express by «ego», because it is emphatic.]

LESSON XXVI

VERBS IN -IŌ OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION · THE IMPERATIVE MOOD

«159.» There are a few common verbs ending in «-iō» which do not belong to the fourth conjugation, as you might infer, but to the third. The fact that they belong to the third conjugation is shown by the ending of the infinitive. (Cf. §126.) Compare

«audiō, audī´re» (hear), fourth conjugation «capiō, ca´pere» (take), third conjugation

«160.» The present, imperfect, and future active indicative of «capiō» are inflected as follows:

«capiō, capere», take PRES. STEM «cape-»

PRESENT IMPERFECT FUTURE SINGULAR 1. ca´piō capiē´bam ca´piam 2. ca´pis capiē´bās ca´piēs 3. ca´pit capiē´bat ca´piet

PLURAL 1. ca´pimus capiēbā´mus capiē´mus 2. ca´pitis capiēbā´tis capiē´tis 3. ca´piunt capiē´bant ca´pient

1. Observe that «capiō» and the other «-iō» verbs follow the fourth conjugation wherever in the fourth conjugation two vowels occur in succession. (Cf. capiō, audiō; capiunt, audiunt; and all the imperfect and future.) All other forms are like the third conjugation. (Cf. capis, regis; capit, regit; etc.)

2. Like «capiō», inflect

«faciō, facere», make, do «fugiō, fugere», flee «iaciō, iacere», hurl «rapiō, rapere», seize

«161.» «The Imperative Mood.» The imperative mood expresses a command; as, come! send! The present tense of the imperative is used only in the second person, singular and plural. The singular in the active voice is regularly the same in form as the present stem. The plural is formed by adding «-te» to the singular.

CONJUGATION SINGULAR PLURAL I. amā, love thou amā´te, love ye II. monē, advise thou monē´te, advise ye III. (a) rege, rule thou re´gite, rule ye (b) cape, take thou ca´pite, take ye IV. audī, hear thou audī´te, hear ye sum (irregular) es, be thou este, be ye

1. In the third conjugation the final -ĕ- of the stem becomes -ĭ- in the plural.

2. The verbs «dīcō», say; «dūcō», lead; and «faciō», make, have the irregular forms «dīc», «dūc», and «fac» in the singular.

3. Give the present active imperative, singular and plural, of «veniō», «dūcō», «vocō», «doceō», «laudō», «dīcō», «sedeō», «agō», «faciō», «mūniō», «mittō», «rapiō».

«162.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Fugient, faciunt, iaciēbat. 2. Dēlē, nūntiāte, fugiunt. 3. Venīte, dīc, faciētis. 4. Dūcite, iaciam, fugiēbant. 5. Fac, iaciēbāmus, fugimus, rapite. 6. Sedēte, reperī, docēte. 7. Fugiēmus, iacient, rapiēs. 8. Reperient, rapiēbātis, nocent. 9. Favēte, resistē, pārēbitis.

10. Volā ad multās terrās et dā auxilium. 11. Ego tēla mea capiam et multās ferās dēlēbō. 12. Quis fābulae tuae crēdet? 13. Este bonī, puerī, et audīte verba grāta magistrī.

II. 1. The goddess will seize her arms and will hurl her weapons. 2. With her weapons she will destroy many beasts. 3. She will give aid to the weak.[1] 4. She will fly to many lands and the beasts will flee. 5. Romans, tell[2] the famous story to your children.

[Footnote 1: Plural. An adjective used as a noun. (Cf. §99.II.3.)]

[Footnote 2: Imperative. The imperative generally stands first, as in English.]

«Third Review, Lessons XVIII-XXVI, §§510-512»

LESSON XXVII

THE PASSIVE VOICE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE OF AMŌ AND MONEŌ

NOUNS «āla, -ae», f., wing «deus, -ī», m., god (deity)[A] «monstrum, -ī», n., omen, prodigy; monster ōrāculum, -ī, n., oracle

VERB «vāstō, -āre», lay waste, devastate

ADJECTIVES «commōtus, -a, -um», moved, excited «maximus, -a, -um», greatest (maximum) «saevus, -a, -um», fierce, savage

ADVERBS «ita», thus, in this way, as follows «tum», then, at that time

[Footnote A: For the declension of «deus», see §468]

«163.» «The Voices.» Thus far the verb forms have been in the active voice; that is, they have represented the subject as performing an action; as,

The lion ---> killed ---> the hunter

A verb is said to be in the passive voice when it represents its subject as receiving an action; as,

The lion <--- was killed <--- by the hunter

Note the direction of the arrows.

«164.» «Passive Personal Endings.» In the passive voice we use a different set of personal endings. They are as follows:

SINGULAR PLURAL 1. -r, I 1. -mur, we 2. -ris, -re, you 2. -minī, you 3. -tur, he, she, it 3. -ntur, they

a. Observe that the letter «-r» appears somewhere in all but one of the endings. This is sometimes called the passive sign.

«165.» PARADIGMS

«amō, amāre» «monēo, monēre» PRES. STEM «amā-» PRES. STEM «monē-»

PRESENT INDICATIVE PERSONAL ENDINGS SINGULAR a´mor, I am loved mo´neor, I am advised -or[1] amā´ris or amā´re, monē´ris or monē´re. -ris or -re you are loved you are advised amā´tur, he is loved monē´tur, he is advised -tur

PLURAL amā´mur, we are loved monē´mur, we are advised -mur amā´minī, you are loved monē´minī, you are advised -mini aman´tur, they are loved monen´tur, they are advised -ntur

[Footnote 1: In the present the personal ending of the first person singular is «-or».]

IMPERFECT INDICATIVE (TENSE SIGN «-bā-»)

SINGULAR amā´bar, monē´bar, -r I was being loved I was being advised amābā´ris or amābā´re, monēbā´ris or monēbā´re -ris or -re you were being loved you were being advised amābā´tur, monēbā´tur, -tur he was being loved he was being advised

PLURAL amābā´mur, monēbā´mur, -mur we were being loved we were being advised amābā´minī, monēbā´minī, -minī you were being loved you were being advised amāban´tur, monēban´tur, -ntur they were being loved they were being advised

FUTURE (TENSE SIGN «-bi-»)

SINGULAR amā´bor, monē´bor, -r I shall be loved I shall be advised amā´beris, or amā´bere monē´beris or monē´bere, -ris or -re you will be loved you will be advised amā´bitur, monē´bitur, -tur he will be loved he will be advised

PLURAL amā´bimur, monē´bimur, -mur we shall be loved we shall be advised amābi´minī, monēbi´minī, -minī you will be loved you will be advised amābun´tur, monēbun´tur, -ntur they will be loved they will be advised

1. The tense sign and the personal endings are added as in the active.

2. In the future the tense sign «-bi-» appears as «-bo-» in the first person, «-be-» in the second, singular number, and as «-bu-» in the third person plural.

3. Inflect «laudō», «necō», «portō», «moveō», «dēleō», «iubeō», in the present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive.

«166.» Intransitive verbs, such as «mātūrō», I hasten; «habitō», I dwell, do not have a passive voice with a personal subject.

«167.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Laudāris or laudāre, laudās, datur, dat. 2. Dabitur, dabit, vidēminī, vidētis. 3. Vocābat, vocābātur, dēlēbitis, dēlēbiminī. 4. Parābātur, parābat, cūrās, cūrāris or cūrāre. 5. Portābantur, portābant, vidēbimur, vidēbimus. 6. Iubēris or iubēre, iubēs, laudābāris or laudābāre, laudābās. 7. Movēberis or movēbere, movēbis, dabantur, dabant. 8. Dēlentur, dēlent, parābāmur, parābāmus.

II. 1. We prepare, we are prepared, I shall be called, I shall call, you were carrying, you were being carried. 2. I see, I am seen, it was being announced, he was announcing, they will order, they will be ordered. 3. You will be killed, you will kill, you move, you are moved, we are praising, we are being praised. 4. I am called, I call, you will have, you are cared for. 5. They are seen, they see, we were teaching, we were being taught, they will move, they will be moved.

[Illustration: PERSEUS ANDROMEDAM SERVAT]

«168.» PER´SEUS AND ANDROM´EDA

Perseus fīlius erat Iovis,[2] maximī[3] deōrum. Dē eō multās fabulās nārrant poētae. Eī favent deī, eī magica arma et ālās dant. Eīs tēlīs armātus et ālīs frētus ad multās terrās volābat et mōnstra saeva dēlēbat et miserīs īnfīrmīsque auxilium dabat.

Aethiopia est terra Āfricae. Eam terram Cēpheus[4] regēbat. Eī[5] Neptūnus, maximus aquārum deus, erat īrātus et mittit[6] mōnstrum saevum ad Aethiopiam. Ibi mōnstrum nōn sōlum lātīs pulchrīsque Aethiopiae agrīs nocēbat sed etiam domicilia agricolārum dēlēbat, et multōs virōs, fēminās, līberōsque necābat. Populus ex agrīs fugiēbat et oppida mūrīs validīs mūniēbat. Tum Cēpheus magnā trīstitiā commōtus ad Iovis ōrāculum properat et ita dīcit: “Amīcī meī necantur; agrī meī vāstantur. Audī verba mea, Iuppiter. Dā miserīs auxilium. Age mōnstrum saevum ex patriā.”

[Footnote 2: «Iovis», the genitive of «Iuppiter».]

[Footnote 3: Used substantively, the greatest. So below, l. 4, «miserīs» and «īnfīrmīs» are used substantively.]

[Footnote 4: Pronounce in two syllables, Ce´pheus.]

[Footnote 5: «Eī», at him, dative with «īrātus».]

[Footnote 6: The present is often used, as in English, in speaking of a past action, in order to make the story more vivid and exciting.]

LESSON XXVIII

PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF REGŌ AND AUDIŌ

VERBS «respondeō, -ēre», respond, reply «servō, -āre», save, preserve

ADJECTIVE «cārus, -a, -um», dear (cherish)

CONJUNCTION «autem», but, moreover, now. Usually stands second, never first

NOUN «vīta, -ae», f., life (vital)

«169.» Review the present, imperfect, and future indicative active of «regō» and «audiō», and learn the passive of the same tenses (§§490, 491).

a. Observe that the tense signs of the imperfect and future are the same as in the active voice, and that the passive personal endings (§164) are added instead of the active ones.

b. Note the slight irregularity in the second person singular present of the third conjugation. There the final «-e-» of the stem is not changed to «-i-», as it is in the active. We therefore have «re´geris» or «re´gere», not «re´giris», «re´gire».

c. Inflect «agō», «dīcō», «dūcō», «mūniō», «reperiō», in the present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive.

«170.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Agēbat, agēbātur, mittēbat, mittēbātur, dūcēbat. 2. Agunt, aguntur, mittuntur, mittunt, mūniunt. 3. Mittor, mittar, mittam, dūcēre, dūcere. 4. Dīcēmur, dīcimus, dīcēmus, dīcimur, mūniēbaminī. 5. Dūcitur, dūciminī, reperīmur, reperiar, agitur. 6. Agēbāmus, agēbāmur, reperīris, reperiēminī. 7. Mūnīminī, veniēbam, dūcēbar, dīcētur. 8. Mittiminī, mittitis, mittēris, mitteris, agēbāminī. 9. Dīcitur, dīcit, mūniuntur, reperient, audientur.

II. 1. I was being driven, I was driving, we were leading, we were being led, he says, it is said. 2. I shall send, I shall be sent, you will find, you will be found, they lead, they are led. 3. I am found, we are led, they are driven, you were being led (sing. and plur.). 4. We shall drive, we shall be driven, he leads, he is being led, they will come, they will be fortified. 5. They were ruling, they were being ruled, you will send, you will be sent, you are sent, (sing. and plur.). 6. He was being led, he will come, you are said (sing. and plur.).

«171.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (Continued)

Tum ōrāculum ita respondet: “Mala est fortūna tua. Neptūnus, magnus aquārum deus, terrae Aethiopiae inimīcus, eās poenās mittit. Sed parā īrātō deō sacrum idōneum et mōnstrum saevum ex patriā tuā agētur. Andromeda fīlia tua est mōnstrō grāta. Dā eam mōnstrō. Servā cāram patriam et vītam populī tuī.” Andromeda autem erat puella pulchra. Eam amābat Cēpheus maximē.

LESSON XXIX

PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF -IŌ VERBS PRESENT PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND IMPERATIVE

VERB «superō, -āre», conquer, overcome (insuperable)

NOUNS «cūra, -ae», f., care, trouble «locus, -ī», m., place, spot (location). «Locus» is neuter in the plural and is declined «loca, -ōrum», etc. «perīculum, -ī», n., danger, peril

ADVERBS «semper», always «tamen», yet, nevertheless

PREPOSITIONS «dē», with abl., down from; concerning «per», with acc., through

CONJUNCTION «si», if

«172.» Review the active voice of «capiō», present, imperfect, and future, and learn the passive of the same tenses (§492).

a. The present forms «capior» and «capiuntur» are like «audior, audiuntur», and the rest of the tense is like «regor».

b. In like manner inflect the passive of «iaciō» and «rapiō».

«173.» «The Infinitive.» The infinitive mood gives the general meaning of the verb without person or number; as, «amāre», to love. Infinitive means unlimited. The forms of the other moods, being limited by person and number, are called the finite, or limited, verb forms.

«174.» The forms of the Present Infinitive, active and passive, are as follows:

CONJ. PRES. PRES. INFINITIVE PRES. INFINITIVE STEM ACTIVE PASSIVE

I. «amā-» amā´re, amā´rī, to love to be loved II. «monē-» monē´re, monē´rī, to advise to be advised III. «rege-» re´gere, re´gī, to rule to be ruled «cape-» ca´pere ca´pī, to take to be taken IV. «audī-» audī´re, audīrī, to hear to be heard

1. Observe that to form the present active infinitive we add «-re» to the present stem.

a. The present infinitive of «sum» is «esse». There is no passive.

2. Observe that the present passive infinitive is formed from the active by changing final «-e» to «-ī», except in the third conjugation, which changes final «-ere» to «-ī».

3. Give the active and passive present infinitives of «doceō», «sedeō», «volō», «cūrō», «mittō», «dūcō», «mūniō», «reperiō», «iaciō», «rapiō.»

«175.» The forms of the Present Imperative, active and passive, are as follows:

ACTIVE[1] PASSIVE CONJ. SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL I. «a´mā» amā´te amā´re, amā´minī, be thou loved be ye loved II. «mo´nē» monē´te monē´re, monē´minī, be thou advised be ye advised III. «re´ge» re´gite re´gere, regi´minī, be thou ruled be ye ruled «ca´pe» ca´pite ca´pere, capi´minī, be thou taken be ye taken IV. «au´dī» audī´te audī´re, audī´minī, be thou heard be ye heard

1. Observe that the second person singular of the present passive imperative is like the present active infinitive, and that both singular and plural are like the second person singular[2] and plural, respectively, of the present passive indicative.

2. Give the present imperative, both active and passive, of the verbs in §174.3.

[Footnote 1: For the sake of comparison the active is repeated from §161.]

[Footnote 2: That is, using the personal ending «-re». A form like «amāre» may be either indicative, infinitive, or imperative.]

«176.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

I. 1. Tum Perseus ālīs ad terrās multās volabit. 2. Mōnstrum saevum per aquās properat et mox agrōs nostrōs vāstābit. 3. Sī autem Cēpheus ad ōrāculum properābit, ōrāculum ita respondēbit. 4. Quis tēlīs Perseī superābitur? Multa mōnstra tēlīs eius superābuntur. 5. Cum cūrīs magnīs et lacrimīs multīs agricolae ex domiciliīs cārīs aguntur. 6. Multa loca vāstābantur et multa oppida dēlēbantur. 7. Mōnstrum est validum, tamen superābitur. 8. Crēdēsne semper verbīs ōrāculī? Ego iīs non semper crēdam. 9. Pārēbitne Cēpheus ōrāculō? Verba ōrāculī eī persuādēbunt. 10. Si nōn fugiēmus, oppidum capiētur et oppidānī necābuntur. 11. Vocāte puerōs et nārrāte fābulam clāram dē mōnstrō saevō.

II. 1. Fly thou, to be cared for, be ye sent, lead thou. 2. To lead, to be led, be ye seized, fortify thou. 3. To be hurled, to fly, send thou, to be found. 4. To be sent, be ye led, to hurl, to be taken. 5. Find thou, hear ye, be ye ruled, to be fortified.

LESSON XXX

SYNOPSES IN THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS · THE ABLATIVE DENOTING FROM

VERBS «absum, abesse», irreg., be away, be absent, be distant, with separative abl. «adpropinquō, -āre», draw near, approach (propinquity), with dative[A] «contineō, -ēre», hold together, hem in, keep (contain) «discēdō, -ere», depart, go away, leave, with separative abl. «egeō, -ēre», lack, need, be without, with separative abl. «interficiō, -ere», kill «prohibeō, -ēre», restrain, keep from (prohibit) «vulnerō, -āre», wound (vulnerable)

NOUNS «prōvincia, -ae», f., province «vīnum, -ī», n., wine

ADJECTIVE «dēfessus, -a, -um», weary, worn out

ADVERB «longē», far, by far, far away

[Footnote A: This verb governs the dative because the idea of nearness to is stronger than that of motion to. If the latter idea were the stronger, the word would be used with «ad» and the accusative.]

«177.» You should learn to give rapidly synopses of the verbs you have had, as follows:[1]

CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE Pres. a´mō a´mor mo´neō mo´neor Imperf. amā´bam amā´bar monē´bam monē´bar Fut. amā´bo amā´bor monē´bo monē´bor

[Footnote 1: Synopses should be given not only in the first person, but in other persons as well, particularly in the third singular and plural.]

CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II IMPERATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE Pres. a´mā amā´re mo´nē monē´re

INFINITIVE Pres. amā´re amā´rī monē´re monē´rī

CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION III («-iō» verbs) INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE Pres. re´gō re´gor ca´piō ca´pior Imperf. regē´bam regē´bar capiē´bam capiē´bar Fut. re´gam re´gar ca´piam ca´piar

IMPERATIVE Pres. re´ge re´gere ca´pe ca´pere

INFINITIVE Pres. re´gere re´gī ca´pere ca´pī

CONJUGATION IV INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE Pres. au´diō au´dior Imperf. audiē´bam audiē´bar Fut. au´diam au´diar

IMPERATIVE Pres. au´dī audī´re

INFINITIVE Pres. audī´re audī´rī

1. Give the synopsis of «rapiō», «mūniō», «reperiō», «doceō», «videō», «dīcō», «agō», «laudō», «portō», and vary the person and number.

«178.» We learned in §50 that one of the three relations covered by the ablative case is expressed in English by the preposition from. This is sometimes called the separative ablative, and it has a number of special uses. You have already grown familiar with the first mentioned below.

«179.» RULE. «Ablative of the Place From.» The place from which is expressed by the ablative with the prepositions «ā» or «ab», «dē», «ē» or «ex».

«Agricolae ex agrīs veniunt», the farmers come from the fields

a. «ā» or «ab» denotes from near a place; «ē» or «ex», out from it; and «dē», down from it. This may be represented graphically as follows:

| | «ā» or «ab» | | «ē» or «ex» /| \ \ | Place | / || | | «dē» | V

«180.» RULE. «Ablative of Separation.» Words expressing separation or deprivation require an ablative to complete their meaning.

a. If the separation is actual and literal of one material thing from another, the preposition «ā» or «ab», «ē» or «ex», or «dē» is generally used. If no actual motion takes place of one thing from another, no preposition is necessary.

(a) «Perseus terram ā mōnstrīs līberat» Perseus frees the land from monsters (literal separation--actual motion is expressed) (b) «Perseus terram trīstitiā līberat» Perseus frees the land from sorrow (figurative separation--no actual motion is expressed)

«181.» RULE. «Ablative of the Personal Agent.» The word expressing the person from whom an action starts, when not the subject, is put in the ablative with the preposition «ā» or «ab.»

a. In this construction the English translation of «ā», «ab» is by rather than from. This ablative is regularly used with passive verbs to indicate the person by whom the act was performed.

«Mōnstrum ā Perseō necātur», the monster is being slain by (lit. from) Perseus

b. Note that the active form of the above sentence would be «Perseus monstrum necat», Perseus is slaying the monster. In the passive the object of the active verb becomes the subject, and the subject of the active verb becomes the ablative of the personal agent, with «ā» or «ab».

c. Distinguish carefully between the ablative of means and the ablative of the personal agent. Both are often translated into English by the preposition by. (Cf. §100. b.) Means is a «thing»; the agent or actor is a «person». The ablative of means has no preposition. The ablative of the personal agent has «ā» or «ab». Compare

«Fera sagittā necātur», the wild beast is killed by an arrow «Fera ā Diānā necātur», the wild beast is killed by Diana

«Sagittā», in the first sentence, is the ablative of means; «ā Diānā», in the second, is the ablative of the personal agent.

«182.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Viri inopiā cibī dēfessī ab eō locō discēdent. 2. Germānī castrīs Rōmānīs adpropinquābant, tamen lēgātus cōpiās ā proeliō continēbat. 3. Multa Gallōrum oppida ab Rōmanīs capientur. 4. Tum Rōmānī tōtum populum eōrum oppidōrum gladiīs pīlīsque interficient. 5. Oppidānī Rōmānīs resistent, sed defessī longō proelīo fugient. 6. Multī ex Galliā fugiēbant et in Germānōrum vicīs habitābant. 7. Miserī nautae vulnerantur ab inimīcīs[2] saevīs et cibō egent. 8. Discēdite et date virīs frūmentum et cōpiam vīnī. 9. Cōpiae nostrae ā proeliō continēbantur ab Sextō lēgatō. 10. Id oppidum ab prōvinciā Rōmānā longē aberat.

II. 1. The weary sailors were approaching a place dear to the goddess Diana. 2. They were without food and without wine. 3. Then Galba and seven other men are sent to the ancient island by Sextus. 4. Already they are not far away from the land, and they see armed men on a high place. 5. They are kept from the land by the men with spears and arrows. 6. The men kept hurling their weapons down from the high place with great eagerness.

[Footnote 2: «inimīcīs», here used as a noun. See vocabulary.]

LESSON XXXI

PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT OF SUM

NOUNS aurum, -ī, n., gold (oriole) «mora, -ae», f., delay «nāvigium, nāvi´gī», n., boat, ship «ventus, -ī», m., wind (ventilate)

VERB «nāvigō, -āre», sail (navigate)

ADJECTIVES attentus, -a, -um, attentive, careful «dubius, -a, -um», doubtful (dubious) perfidus, -a, -um, faithless, treacherous (perfidy)

ADVERB «anteā», before, previously

PREPOSITION «sine», with abl., without

«183.» «Principal Parts.» There are certain parts of the verb that are of so much consequence in tense formation that we call them the principal parts.

The principal parts of the Latin verb are the present, the past, and the past participle; as go, went, gone; see, saw, seen, etc.

The principal parts of the Latin verb are the first person singular of the present indicative, the present infinitive, the first person singular of the perfect indicative, and the perfect passive participle.

«184.» «Conjugation Stems.» From the principal parts we get three conjugation stems, from which are formed the entire conjugation. We have already learned about the «present stem», which is found from the present infinitive (cf. §126.a). The other two stems are the «perfect stem» and the «participial stem».

«185.» «The Perfect Stem.» The perfect stem of the verb is formed in various ways, but may always be found by dropping «-ī» from the first person singular of the perfect, the third of the principal parts. From the perfect stem are formed the following tenses:

THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE THE PLUPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE (ENGLISH PAST PERFECT) THE FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE

All these tenses express completed action in present, past, or future time respectively.

«186.» «The Endings of the Perfect.» The perfect active indicative is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem. These endings are different from those found in any other tense, and are as follows:

SINGULAR PLURAL 1. -ī, I 1. -imus, we 2. -istī, you 2. -istis, you 3. -it, he, she, it 3. -ērunt or -ēre, they

«187.» Inflection of «sum» in the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative:

PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PRIN. PARTS sum esse fuī

PERFECT STEM fu-

PERFECT SINGULAR PLURAL fu´ī, I have been, I was fu´imus, we have been, we were fuis´tī, fuis´tis, you have been, you were you have been, you were fu´it, he has been, he was fuē´runt or fuē´re, they have been, they were

PLUPERFECT (TENSE SIGN «-erā-») fu´eram, I had been fuerā´mus, we had been fu´erās, you had been fuerā´tis, you had been fu´erat, he had been fu´erant, they had been

FUTURE PERFECT (TENSE SIGN «-eri-») fu´erō, I shall have been fue´rimus, we shall have been fu´eris, you will have been fue´ritis, you will have been fu´erit, he will have been fu´erint, they will have been

1. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect.

2. Observe that the pluperfect may be formed by adding «eram», the imperfect of «sum», to the perfect stem. The tense sign is «-erā-».

3. Observe that the future perfect may be formed by adding «erō», the future of «sum», to the perfect stem. But the third person plural ends in «-erint», not in «-erunt». The tense sign is «-eri-».

4. All active perfects, pluperfects, and future perfects are formed on the perfect stem and inflected in the same way.

«188.» DIALOGUE

THE BOYS TITUS, MARCUS, AND QUINTUS

M. Ubi fuistis, Tite et Quīnte? T. Ego in meō lūdō fuī et Quīntus in suō lūdō fuit. Bonī puerī fuimus. Fuitne Sextus in vīcō hodiē? M. Fuit. Nūper per agrōs proximōs fluviō properābat. Ibi is et Cornēlius habent nāvigium. T. Nāvigium dīcis? Aliī[1] nārrā eam fābulam! M. Vērō (Yes, truly), pulchrum et novum nāvigium! Q. Cuius pecūniā[2] Sextus et Cornēlius id nāvigium parant? Quis iīs pecūniam dat? M. Amīcī Cornēlī multum habent aurum et puer pecūniā nōn eget. T. Quō puerī nāvigābunt? Nāvigābuntne longē ā terrā? M. Dubia sunt cōnsilia eōrum. Sed hodiē, crēdō, sī ventus erit idōneus, ad maximam īnsulam nāvigābunt. Iam anteā ibi fuērunt. Tum autem ventus erat perfidus et puerī magnō in perīculō erant. Q. Aqua ventō commōta est inimīca nautīs semper, et saepe perfidus ventus nāvigia rapit, agit, dēletque. Iī puerī, sī nōn fuerint maximē attentī, īrātā aquā et validō ventō superābuntur et ita interficientur.

[Footnote 1: Dative case. (Cf. §109.)]

[Footnote 2: Ablative of means.]

«189.» EXERCISE

1. Where had the boys been before? They had been in school. 2. Where had Sextus been? He had been in a field next to the river. 3. Who has been with Sextus to-day? Cornelius has been with him. 4. Who says so? Marcus. 5. If the wind has been suitable, the boys have been in the boat. 6. Soon we shall sail with the boys. 7. There[3] will be no danger, if we are (shall have been) careful.[4]

[Footnote 3: The expletive there is not expressed, but the verb will precede the subject, as in English.]

[Footnote 4: This predicate adjective must be nominative plural to agree with we.]

LESSON XXXII

THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS

NOUNS «animus, -ī», m., mind, heart; spirit, feeling (animate) «bracchium, bracchī», n., forearm, arm «porta, -ae», f., gate (portal)

ADJECTIVES «adversus, -a, -um», opposite; adverse, contrary «plēnus, -a, -um», full (plenty)

PREPOSITION «prō», with abl., before; in behalf of; instead of

ADVERB «diū», for a long time, long

«190.» «Meanings of the Perfect.» The perfect tense has two distinct meanings. The first of these is equivalent to the English present perfect, or perfect with have, and denotes that the action of the verb is complete at the time of speaking; as, I have finished my work. As this denotes completed action at a definite time, it is called the «perfect definite».

The perfect is also used to denote an action that happened sometime in the past; as, I finished my work. As no definite time is specified, this is called the «perfect indefinite». It corresponds to the ordinary use of the English past tense.

a. Note carefully the difference between the following tenses:

I {was finishing } my work (imperfect, §134) {used to finish} I finished my work (perfect indefinite) I have finished my work (perfect definite)

When telling a story the Latin uses the perfect indefinite to mark the different forward steps of the narrative, and the imperfect to describe situations and circumstances that attend these steps. If the following sentences were Latin, what tenses would be used?

“Last week I went to Boston. I was trying to find an old friend of mine, but he was out of the city. Yesterday I returned home.”

«191.» «Inflection of the Perfect.» We learned in §186 that any perfect is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem. The inflection in the four regular conjugations is then as follows:

CONJ. I «amāvī» I have loved, I loved or did love CONJ. II «monuī» I have advised, I advised or did advise CONJ. III «rēxī» I have ruled, I ruled or did rule «cēpī» I have taken, I took or did take CONJ. IV «audīvī» I have heard, I heard or did hear

PERFECT STEMS «amāv-» «monu-» «rēx-» «cēp-» «audīv-»

SINGULAR 1. amā´vī mo´nuī rē´xī cē´pī audī´vī 2. amāvis´tī monuis´tī rēxis´tī cēpis´tī audīvis´tī 3. amā´vit mo´nuit rē´xit cē´pit audī´vit

PLURAL 1. amā´vimus monu´imus rē´ximus cē´pimus audī´vimus 2. amāvis´tis monuis´tis rēxis´tis cēpis´tis audīvis´tis 3. amāvē´runt monuē´runt rēxē´runt cēpē´runt audīvē´runt or or or or or amāvē´re monuē´re rēxē´re cēpē´re audīvē´re

1. The first person of the perfect is always given as the third of the principal parts. From this we get the perfect stem. This shows the absolute necessity of learning the principal parts thoroughly.

2. Nearly all perfects of the first conjugation are formed by adding «-vī» to the present stem. Like «amāvī» inflect «parāvī», «vocāvī», «cūrāvī», «laudāvī».

3. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect. Drill on it.

«192.» Learn the principal parts and inflect the perfects:

PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. dō dăre dedī give dēleō dēlēre dēlēvī destroy habeō habēre habuī have moveō movēre mōvī move pāreō pārēre pāruī obey prohibeō prohibēre prohibuī restrain, keep from videō vidēre vīdī see dīcō dīcere dīxī say discēdō discēdere discessī depart dūcō dūcere dūxī lead faciō facere fēcī make, do mittō mittere mīsī send mūniō mūnīre mūnīvī fortify veniō venīre vēnī come

«193.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (Continued)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290.

Cēpheus, adversā fortūnā maximē commōtus, discessit et multīs cum lacrimīs populō Aethiopiae verba ōrāculī nārrāvit. Fāta Andromedae, puellae pulchrae, ā tōtō populō dēplōrābantur, tamen nūllum erat auxilium. Deinde Cēpheus cum plēnō trīstitiae animō cāram suam fīliam ex oppidī portā ad aquam dūxit et bracchia eius ad saxa dūra revīnxit. Tum amīcī puellae miserae longē discessērunt et diū mōnstrum saevum exspectāvērunt.

Tum forte Perseus, ālīs frētus, super Aethiopiam volābat. Vīdit populum, Andromedam, lacrimās, et, magnopere attonitus, ad terram dēscendit. Tum Cēpheus eī tōtās cūrās nārrāvit et ita dīxit: “Pārēbō verbīs ōrāculī, et prō patriā fīliam meam dabō; sed sī id mōnstrum interficiēs et Andromedam servābis, tibi (to you) eam dabō.”

LESSON XXXIII

PLUPERFECT AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE PERFECT ACTIVE INFINITIVE

«194.» CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV «amō» «moneō» «regō» «capiō» «audiō» PERFECT STEMS «amāv-» «monu-» «rēx-» «cēp-» «audīv-»

PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE TENSE SIGN «-erā-»

SINGULAR I had loved I had advised I had ruled I had taken I had heard

1. amā´veram monu´eram rē´xeram cē´peram audī´veram 2. amā´verās monu´erās rē´xerās cē´perās audī´verās 3. amā´verat monu´erat rē´xerat cē´perat audī´verat

PLURAL 1. amāverā´mus monuerā´mus rēxerā´mus cēperā´mus audīverā´mus 2. amāverā´tis monuerā´tis rēxerā´tis cēperā´tis audīverā´tis 3. amā´verant monu´erant rē´xerant cē´perant audī´verant

FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE TENSE SIGN «-eri-»

SINGULAR I shall have I shall have I shall have I shall have I shall have loved advised ruled taken heard

1. amā´verō monu´erō rē´xerō cē´perō audī´verō 2. amā´veris monu´eris rē´xeris cē´peris audī´veris 3. amā´verit monu´erit rē´xerit cē´perit audī´verit

PLURAL 1. amāve´rimus monue´rimus rēxe´rimus cēpe´rimus audīve´rimus 2. amāve´ritis monue´ritis rēxe´ritis cēpe´ritis audīve´ritis 3. amā´verint monu´erint rē´xerint cē´perint audī´verint

1. Observe that these are all inflected alike and the rules for formation given in §187.2-4 hold good here.

2. In like manner inflect the pluperfect and future perfect indicative active of «dō», «portō», «dēleō», «moveō», «habeō», «dīcō», «discēdō», «faciō», «veniō», «mūniō.»

«195.» «The Perfect Active Infinitive.» The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding «-isse» to the perfect stem.

CONJ PERFECT STEM PERFECT INFINITIVE I. amāv- amāvis´se, to have loved II. monu- monuis´se, to have advised III. (a) rēx- rēxis´se, to have ruled (b) cēp- cēpis´se, to have taken IV. audīv» audīvis´se, to have heard sum fu- fuis´se, to have been

1. In like manner give the perfect infinitive active of «dō», «portō», «dēleō», «moveō», «habeō», «dīcō», «discēdō», «faciō», «veniō», «mūniō».

«196.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Habuistī, mōvērunt, miserant. 2. Vīdit, dīxeris, dūxisse. 3. Mīsistis, pāruērunt, discesserāmus. 4. Mūnīvit, dederam, mīserō. 5. Habuerimus, dēlēvī, pāruit, fuisse. 6. Dederās, mūnīveritis, vēnerātis, mīsisse. 7. Vēnerās, fēcisse, dederātis, portāveris.

8. Quem verba ōrāculī mōverant? Populum verba ōrāculī mōverant. 9. Cui Cēpheus verba ōrāculī nārrāverit? Perseō Cēpheus verba ōrāculī nārrāverit. 10. Amīcī ab Andromedā discesserint. 11. Mōnstrum saevum domicilia multa dēlēverat. 12. Ubi mōnstrum vīdistis? Id in aquā vīdimus. 13. Quid mōnstrum faciet? Mōnstrum Andromedam interficiet.

II. 1. They have obeyed, we have destroyed, I shall have had. 2. We shall have sent, I had come, they have fortified. 3. I had departed, he has obeyed, you have sent (sing. and plur.). 4. To have destroyed, to have seen, he will have given, they have carried. 5. He had destroyed, he has moved, you have had (sing. and plur.). 6. I have given, you had moved (sing. and plur.), we had said. 7. You will have made (sing. and plur.), they will have led, to have given.

8. Who had seen the monster? Andromeda had seen it. 9. Why had the men departed from[1] the towns? They had departed because the monster had come. 10. Did Cepheus obey[2] the oracle[3]? He did.

[Footnote 1: «ex». What would «ab» mean?]

[Footnote 2: Did ... obey, perfect tense.]

[Footnote 3: What case?]

LESSON XXXIV

REVIEW OF THE ACTIVE VOICE

ADVERBS «celeriter», quickly (celerity) «dēnique», finally «graviter», heavily, severely (gravity) «subitō», suddenly

VERB «reportō, -āre, -āvī», bring back, restore; win, gain (report)

«197.» A review of the tenses of the indicative active shows the following formation:

{ PRESENT = First of the principal parts TENSES { IMPERFECT = Present stem + -ba-m OF THE { FUTURE = Present stem + -bō, Conj. I and II INDICATIVE { -a-m, Conj. III and IV { PERFECT = Third of the principal parts { PLUPERFECT = Perfect stem + -era-m { FUTURE PERFECT = Perfect stem + -erō

«198.» The synopsis of the active voice of «amō», as far as we have learned the conjugation, is as follows:

PRINCIPAL PARTS «amō, amāre, amāvī»

PRES. STEM «amā-»

{ Pres. amō INDIC. { Imperf. amābam { Fut. amābō PRES. IMV. amā PRES. INFIN. amāre

PERF. STEM «amāv-»

{ Perf. amāvī INDIC. { Pluperf. amāveram { Fut. perf. amāverō PERF. INFIN. amāvisse

1. Learn to write in the same form and to give rapidly the principal parts and synopsis of «parō», «dō», «laudō», «dēleō», «habeō», «moveō», «pāreō», «videō», «dīcō», «discēdō», «dūcō», «mittō», «capiō», «muniō», «veniō».[1]

[Footnote 1: Learn to give synopses rapidly, and not only in the first person singular but in any person of either number.]

«199.» Learn the following principal parts:[2]

PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC.

IRREGULAR VERBS sum esse fuī be ab´sum abes´se ā´fuī be away dō dare dedī give

CONJUGATION II contineō continēre continuī hold in, keep doceō docēre docuī teach egeō egēre eguī need faveō favēre fāvī favor iubeō iubēre iussī order noceō nocēre nocuī injure persuādeō persuādēre persuāsī persuade respondeō respondēre respondī reply sedeō sedēre sēdī sit studeō studēre studuī be eager

CONJUGATION III agō agere ēgī drive crēdō crēdere crēdidī believe fugiō fugere fūgī flee iaciō iacere iēcī hurl interficiō interficere interfēcī kill rapiō rapere rapuī seize resis´tō resis´tere re´stitī resist

CONJUGATION IV repe´riō reperī´re rep´perī find

[Footnote 2: These are all verbs that you have had before, and the perfect is the only new form to be learned.]

«200.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (Concluded)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290. Read the whole story.

Perseus semper proeliō studēbat[3] et respondit,[3] “Verba tua sunt maximē grāta,” et laetus arma sua magica parāvit.[3] Subitō mōnstrum vidētur; celeriter per aquam properat et Andromedae adpropinquat. Eius amīcī longē absunt et misera puella est sōla. Perseus autem sine morā super aquam volāvit.[3] Subitō dēscendit[3] et dūrō gladiō saevum mōnstrum graviter vulnerāvit.[3] Diū pugnātur,[4] diū proelium est dubium. Dēnique autem Perseus mōnstrum interfēcit[3] et victōriam reportāvit.[3] Tum ad saxum vēnit[3] et Andromedam līberāvit[3] et eam ad Cēpheum dūxit.[3] Is, nūper miser, nunc laetus, ita dīxit[3]: “Tuō auxiliō, mī amīce, cāra fīlia mea est lībera; tua est Andromeda.” Diū Perseus cum Andromedā ibi habitābat[3] et magnopere ā tōtō populō amābātur.[3]

[Footnote 3: See if you can explain the use of the perfects and imperfects in this passage.]

[Footnote 4: The verb pugnātur means, literally, it is fought; translate freely, the battle is fought, or the contest rages. The verb pugnō in Latin is intransitive, and so does not have a personal subject in the passive. A verb with an indeterminate subject, designated in English by it, is called impersonal.]

LESSON XXXV

THE PASSIVE PERFECTS OF THE INDICATIVE THE PERFECT PASSIVE AND FUTURE ACTIVE INFINITIVE

«201.» The fourth and last of the principal parts (§183) is the «perfect passive participle». From it we get the participial stem on which are formed the future active infinitive and all the passive perfects.

1. Learn the following principal parts, which are for the first time given in full:

CONJ. PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PASS. PART. I. amō amā´-re amā´v-ī amā´t-us This is the model for all regular verbs of the first conjugation. II. mo´neō monē´-re mo´nu-ī mo´nit-us III. regō re´ge-re rēx-ī rēct-us ca´piō ca´pe-re cēp-ī capt-us IV. au´diō audī´-re audī´v-ī audī´t-us

2. The base of the participial stem is found by dropping «-us» from the perfect passive participle.

«202.» In English the perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses of the indicative passive are made up of forms of the auxiliary verb to be and the past participle; as, I have been loved, I had been loved, I shall have been loved.

Very similarly, in Latin, the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect passive tenses use respectively the present, imperfect, and future of «sum» as an auxiliary verb with the perfect passive participle, as

Perfect passive, «amā´tus sum», I have been or was loved Pluperfect passive, «amā´tus eram», I had been loved Future perfect passive, «amā´tus erō», I shall have been loved

1. In the same way give the synopsis of the corresponding tenses of «moneō», «regō», «capiō», and «audiō», and give the English meanings.

«203.» «Nature of the Participle.» A participle is partly verb and partly adjective. As a verb it possesses tense and voice. As an adjective it is declined and agrees with the word it modifies in gender, number, and case.

«204.» The perfect passive participle is declined like «bonus, bona, bonum», and in the compound tenses (§202) it agrees as a predicate adjective with the subject of the verb.

EXAMPLES IN SINGULAR «Vir laudātus est», the man was praised, or has been praised «Puella laudāta est», the girl was praised, or has been praised «Cōnsilium laudātum est», the plan was praised, or has been praised

EXAMPLES IN PLURAL «Virī laudātī sunt», the men were praised, or have been praised «Puellae laudātae sunt», the girls were praised, or have been praised «Cōnsilia laudāta sunt», the plans were praised, or have been praised

1. Inflect the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative passive of «amō», «moneō», «regō», «capiō», and «audiō» (§§488-492).

«205.» «The perfect passive infinitive» is formed by adding «esse», the present infinitive of «sum», to the perfect passive participle; as, amā´t-us (-a, -um) «esse», to have been loved; mo´nit-us (-a, -um) «esse», to have been advised.

1. Form the perfect passive infinitive of «regō», «capiō», «audiō», and give the English meanings.

«206.» The future active infinitive is formed by adding «esse», the present infinitive of «sum», to the future active participle. This participle is made by adding «-ūrus, -a, -um» to the base of the participial stem. Thus the future active infinitive of «amō» is amat-ū´rus (-a, -um) «esse», to be about to love.

a. Note that in forming the three tenses of the active infinitive we use all three conjugation stems:

Present, amāre (present stem), to love Perfect, amāvisse (perfect stem), to have loved Future, amātūrus esse (participial stem), to be about to love

1. Give the three tenses of the active infinitive of «laudō», «moneō», «regō», «capiō», «audiō», with the English meanings.

«207.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Fābula Andromedae nārrāta est. 2. Multae fābulae ā magistrō nārrātae sunt. 3. Ager ab agricolā validō arātus erat. 4. Agrī ab agricolīs validīs arātī erant. 5. Aurum ā servō perfidō ad domicilium suum portātum erit. 6. Nostra arma ā lēgātō laudāta sunt. Quis vestra arma laudāvit? 7. Ab ancillā tuā ad cēnam vocātae sumus. 8. Andromeda mōnstrō nōn data est, quia mōnstrum ā Perseō necātum erat.

II. 1. The provinces were laid waste, the field had been laid waste, the towns will have been laid waste. 2. The oracles were heard, the oracle was heard, the oracles had been heard. 3. The oracle will have been heard, the province had been captured, the boats have been captured. 4. The fields were laid waste, the man was advised, the girls will have been advised. 5. The towns had been ruled, we shall have been captured, you will have been heard.

LESSON XXXVI

REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS · PREPOSITIONS YES-OR-NO QUESTIONS

«dexter, dextra, dextrum», right (dextrous) «sinister, sinistra, sinistrum», left «frūstrā», adv., in vain (frustrate)

«gerō, gerere, gessī, gestus», bear, carry on; wear; «bellum gerere», to wage war «occupō, occupāre, occupāvī, occupātus», seize, take possession of (occupy) «postulō, postulāre, postulāvī, postulātus», demand (ex-postulate) «recūsō, recūsāre, recūsāvī, recūsātus», refuse «stō, stāre, stetī, status», stand «temptō, temptāre, temptāvī, temptātus», try, tempt, test; attempt «teneō, tenēre, tenuī, ----», keep, hold (tenacious)

The word «ubi», which we have used so much in the sense of where in asking a question, has two other uses equally important:

1. «ubi» = when, as a relative conjunction denoting time; as, «Ubi mōnstrum audīvērunt, fūgērunt», when they heard the monster, they fled

2. «ubi» = where, as a relative conjunction denoting place; as, «Videō oppidum ubi Galba habitat», I see the town where Galba lives

«ubi» is called a relative conjunction because it is equivalent to a relative pronoun. When in the first sentence is equivalent to at the time «at which»; and in the second, where is equivalent to the place «in which».

«208.» The following list shows the principal parts of all the verbs you have had excepting those used in the paradigms. The parts you have had before are given for review, and the perfect participle is the only new form for you to learn. Sometimes one or more of the principal parts are lacking, which means that the verb has no forms based on that stem. A few verbs lack the perfect passive participle but have the future active participle in «-ūrus», which appears in the principal parts instead.

IRREGULAR VERBS

«sum» «esse» «fuī» «futūrus» be «absum» «abesse» «āfuī» «āfutūrus» be away «dō»[1] «dare» «dedī» «datus» give

[Footnote 1: «dō» is best classed with the irregular verbs because of the short «a» in the present and participial stems.]

CONJUGATION I

«portō» «portāre» «portāvī» «portātus» carry

So for all verbs of this conjugation thus far used.

CONJUGATION II

«contineō» «continēre» «continuī» «contentus» hold in, keep «dēleō» «dēlēre» «dēlēvī» «dēlētus» destroy «doceō» «docēre» «docuī» «doctus» teach «egeō» «egēre» «eguī» ---- lack «faveō» «favēre» «fāvī» «fautūrus» favor «iubeō» «iubēre» «iussī» «iussus» order «moveō» «movēre» «mōvī» «mōtus» move «noceō» «nocēre» «nocuī» «nocitūrus» injure «pāreō» «pārēre» «pāruī» ---- obey «persuādeō» «persuādēre» «persuāsī» «persuāsus» persuade (from) «prohibeō» «prohibēre» «prohibuī» «prohibitus» restrain, keep «respondeō» «respondēre» «respondī» «respōnsus» reply «sedeō» «sedēre» «sēdī» «-sessus» sit «studeō» «studēre» «studuī» ---- be eager «videō» «vidēre» «vīdī» «vīsus» see

CONJUGATION III

«agō» «agere» «ēgī» «āctus» drive «crēdō» «crēdere» «crēdidī» «crēditus» believe «dīcō» «dīcere» «dīxī» «dictus» say «discēdō» «discēdere» «discessī» «discessus» depart «dūcō» «dūcere» «dūxī» «ductus» lead «faciō»[2] «facere» «fēcī» «factus» make «fugiō» «fugere» «fūgī» «fugitūrus» flee «iaciō» «iacere» «iēcī» «iactus» hurl «interficiō» «interficere» «interfēcī» «interfectus» kill «mittō» «mittere» «mīsī» «missus» send «rapiō» «rapere» «rapuī» «raptus» seize «resistō» «resistere» «restitī» ---- resist

CONJUGATION IV

«mūniō» «mūnīre» «mūnīvī» «mūnītus» fortify «reperiō» «reperīre» «rep´perī» «repertus» find «veniō» «venīre» «vēnī» «ventus» come

[Footnote 2: «faciō» has an irregular passive which will be presented later.]

«209.» «Prepositions.» 1. We learned in §§52, 53 that only the accusative and the ablative are used with prepositions, and that prepositions expressing ablative relations govern the ablative case. Those we have had are here summarized. The table following should be learned.

«ā» or «ab», from, by «cum», with «dē», down from, concerning «ē» or «ex», out from, out of «prō», before, in front of; for, in behalf of «sine», without

2. Prepositions not expressing ablative relations must govern the accusative (§52). Of these we have had the following:

«ad», to; «apud», among; «per», through

There are many others which you will meet as we proceed.

3. The preposition «in» when meaning in or on governs the ablative; when meaning to, into, against (relations foreign to the ablative) «in» governs the accusative.

«210.» «Yes-or-No Questions.» Questions not introduced by some interrogative word like who, why, when, etc., but expecting the answer yes or no, may take one of three forms:

1. Is he coming? (Asking for information. Implying nothing as to the answer expected.) 2. Is he not coming? (Expecting the answer yes.) 3. He isn´t coming, is he? (Expecting the answer no.)

These three forms are rendered in Latin as follows:

1. «Venitne?» is he coming? 2. «Nōnne venit?» is he not coming? 3. «Num venit?» he isn´t coming, is he?

a. «-ne», the question sign, is usually added to the verb, which then stands first.

b. We learned in §56.b that yes-or-no questions are usually answered by repeating the verb, with or without a negative. Instead of this, «ita», «vērō», «certē», etc. (so, truly, certainly, etc.) may be used for yes, and «nōn», «minimē», etc. for no if the denial is emphatic, as, by no means, not at all.

«211.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Nōnne habēbat Cornēlia ōrnāmenta aurī? Habēbat. 2. Num Sextus lēgātus scūtum in dextrō bracchiō gerēbat? Nōn in dextrō, sed sinistrō in bracchiō Sextus scūtum gerēbat. 3. Frūstrā bella multa ab Gallīs gesta erant. 4. Ubi oppidum ā perfidō Sextō occupātum est, oppidānī miserī gladiō interfectī sunt. 5. Id oppidum erat plēnum frūmentī. 6. Nōnne Sextus ab oppidānīs frūmentum postulāvit? Vērō, sed iī recūsāvērunt frūmentum dare. 7. Cūr oppidum ab Sextō dēlētum est? Quia frūmentum recūsātum est. 8. Ea victōria nōn dubia erat. 9. Oppidānī erant dēfessī et armīs egēbant. 10. Num fugam temptāvērunt? Minimē.

II. 1. Where was Julia standing? She was standing where you had ordered. 2. Was Julia wearing any ornaments? She had many ornaments of gold. 3. Did she not attempt flight when she saw the danger? She did. 4. Who captured her? Galba captured her without delay and held her by the left arm. 5. She didn´t have the lady’s gold, did she? No, the gold had been taken by a faithless maid and has been brought back.

«Fourth Review, Lessons XXVII-XXXVI, §§513-516»

LESSON XXXVII

CONJUGATION OF POSSUM · THE INFINITIVE USED AS IN ENGLISH

«neque» or «nec», conj., neither, nor, and ... not; «neque ... neque», neither ... nor «castellum, -ī», n., redoubt, fort (castle) «cotīdiē», adv., daily cessō, cessāre, cessāvī, cessātus, cease, with the infin.

«incipiō, incipere, incēpī, inceptus», begin (incipient), with the infin. «oppugnō, oppugnāre, oppugnāvī, oppugnātus», storm, assail «petō, petere, petivi» or «petiī, petītus», aim at, assail, storm, attack; seek, ask (petition) «pōnō, pōnere, posuī, positus», place, put (position); «castra pōnere», to pitch camp «possum, posse, potuī, ----», be able, can (potent), with the infin. «vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitus», forbid (veto), vith the infin.; opposite of «iubeō», command «vincō, vincere, vīcī, victus», conquer (in-vincible) «vīvō, vīvere, vīxī, ----», live, be alive (re-vive)

«212.» Learn the principal parts of «possum», I am able, I can, and its inflection in the indicative and infinitive. (Cf. §495.)

a. «Possum», I can, is a compound of «potis», able, and «sum», I am.

«213.» «The Infinitive with Subject Accusative.» The infinitive (cf. §173) is a verbal noun. Used as a noun, it has the constructions of a noun. As a verb it can govern a case and be modified by an adverb. The uses of the infinitive are much the same in Latin as in English.

1. In English certain verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of a substantive in the objective case and an infinitive, as, he commanded the men to flee. Such object clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, some verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of an infinitive with a subject in the accusative case, as, «Is virōs fugere iussit», he commanded the men to flee.

«214.» RULE. «Subject of the Infinitive.» The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative.

«215.» «The Complementary Infinitive.» In English a verb is often followed by an infinitive to complete its meaning, as, the Romans are able to conquer the Gauls. This is called the complementary infinitive, as the predicate is not complete without the added infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, verbs of incomplete predication are completed by the infinitive. Among such verbs are «possum», I am able, I can; «properō», «mātūrō», I hasten; «temptō», I attempt; as

«Rōmānī Gallōs superāre possunt», the Romans are able to (or can) conquer the Gauls «Bellum gerere mātūrant», they hasten to wage war

a. A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb.

«Malī puerī esse bonī nōn possunt», bad boys are not able to (or cannot) be good.

Observe that «bonī» agrees with «puerī».

«216.» «The Infinitive used as a Noun.» In English the infinitive is often used as a pure noun, as the subject of a sentence, or as a predicate nominative. For example, To conquer (= conquering) is pleasing; To see (= seeing) is to believe (= believing). The same use of the infinitive is found in Latin, especially with «est», as

«Superāre est grātum», to conquer is pleasing «Vidēre est crēdere», to see is to believe

a. In the construction above, the infinitive often has a subject, which must then be in the accusative case, as

«Galbam superāre inimīcōs est grātum multīs», for Galba to conquer his enemies is pleasing to many

b. An infinitive used as a noun is neuter singular. Thus, in the sentence «superāre est grātum», the predicate adjective «grātum» is in the neuter nominative singular to agree with «superāre» the subject.

«217.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1. Magister lūdī līberōs cum dīligentiā labōrāre iussit. 2. Egēre cibō et vinō est virīs molestum. 3. Virī armātī vetuērunt Gallōs castra ibi pōnere. 4. Estne lēgātus in castellō an in mūrō? Is est prō portā. 5. Ubi nostrī[1] fugere incēpērunt, lēgātus ab vestrīs[1] captus est. 6. Gallī castellum ibi oppugnāverant ubi praesidium erat īnfīrmum. 7. Aliī pugnāre temptābant, aliī portās petēbant. 8. Fēminae prō domiciliīs sedēbant neque resistere validīs Gallīs poterant. 9. Bellum est saevum, nec īnfīrmīs nec miserīs favet. 10. Sed virī arma postulābant et studēbant Gallōs dē mūrīs agere. 11. Id castellum ab Gallīs occupārī Rōmānīs nōn grātum erit. 12. Gallī ubi ā Rōmānīs victī sunt, esse līberī[2] cessāvērunt. 13. Diū sine aquā vīvere nōn potestis.

II. 1. The girl began daily to carry water from the river to the gates. 2. The Gauls had pitched their camp in a place suitable for a battle. 3. For a long time they tried in vain to seize the redoubt. 4. Neither did they cease to hurl weapons against[3] the walls. 5. But they were not able to (could not) take the town.

[Footnote 1: Supply men. «nostri», «vestrī», and «suī» are often used as nouns in this way.]

[Footnote 2: Not children. The Romans used «līberī» either as an adjective, meaning free, or as a noun, meaning the free, thereby signifying their free-born children. The word was never applied to children of slaves.]

[Footnote 3: «in» with the accusative.]

«218.» THE FAITHLESS TARPE´IA

Sabīnī ōlim cum Rōmānīs bellum gerēbant et multās victōriās reportāverant. Iam agrōs proximōs mūrīs vāstābant, iam oppidō adpropinquābant. Rōmānī autem in Capitōlium fūgerant et longē perīculō aberant. Mūrīs validīs et saxīs altīs crēdēbant. Frūstrā Sabīnī tēla iaciēbant, frūstrā portās dūrās petēbant; castellum occupāre nōn poterant. Deinde novum cōnsilium cēpērunt.[4]

Tarpēia erat puella Rōmāna pulchra et superba. Cotīdiē aquam cōpiīs Rōmānīs in Capitōlium portābat. Eī[5] nōn nocēbant Sabīnī, quod ea sine armīs erat neque Sabīnī bellum cum fēminīs līberīsque gerēbant. Tarpēia autem maximē amābat ōrnāmenta aurī. Cotīdiē Sabīnōrum ōrnāmenta vidēbat et mox ea dēsīderāre incipiēbat. Eī ūnus ex[6] Sabīnīs dīxit, “Dūc cōpiās Sabīnās intrā portās, Tarpēia, et maxima erunt praemia tua.”

[Footnote 4: «cōnsilium capere», to make a plan. Why is the perfect tense used here and the imperfect in the preceding sentences? Explain the use of tenses in the next paragraph.]

[Footnote 5: Dative with «nocēbant». (Cf. §154.)]

[Footnote 6: «ex», out of, i.e. from the nuumber of; best translated of.]

[Illustration: TARPEIA PUELLA PERFIDA]

LESSON XXXVIII

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN

«219.» Sentences are simple, compound, or complex.

a. A simple sentence is a sentence containing but one statement, that is, one subject and one predicate: The Romans approached the town.

b. A compound sentence is a sentence containing two or more independent statements: The Romans approached the town | and | the enemy fled.

NOTE. An independent statement is one that can stand alone; it does not depend upon another statement.

c. A complex sentence is a sentence containing one independent statement and one or more dependent statements: When the Romans approached the town | the enemy fled.

NOTE. A dependent or subordinate statement is one that depends on or qualifies another statement; thus the enemy fled is independent, and when the Romans approached the town is dependent or subordinate.

d. The separate statements in a compound or complex sentence are called clauses. In a complex sentence the independent statement is called the main clause and the dependent statement the subordinate clause.

«220.» Examine the complex sentence

The Romans killed the men who were taken

Here are two clauses:

a. The main clause, The Romans killed the men

b. The subordinate clause, who were taken

The word who is a pronoun, for it takes the place of the noun men. It also connects the subordinate clause who were taken with the noun men. Hence the clause is an adjective clause. A pronoun that connects an adjective clause with a substantive is called a relative pronoun, and the substantive for which the relative pronoun stands is called its antecedent. The relative pronouns in English are who, whose, whom, which, what, that.

«221.» The relative pronoun in Latin is «quī», «quae», «quod», and it is declined as follows:

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. «quī» «quae» «quod» «quī» «quae» «quae» Gen. «cuius» «cuius» «cuius» «quōrum» «quārum» «quōrum» Dat. «cui» «cui» «cui» «quibus» «quibus» «quibus» Acc. «quem» «quam» «quod» «quōs» «quās» «quae» Abl. «quō» «quā» «quō» «quibus» «quibus» «quibus»

1. Review the declension of «is», §114, and note the similarity in the endings. The forms «quī», «quae», and «quibus» are the only forms showing new endings.

NOTE. The genitive «cuius» and the dative «cui» are pronounced co͝oi´yo͝os (two syllables) and co͝oi (one syllable).

«222.» «The Relative Pronoun is translated as follows:»[1]

MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. Nom. who, that which, what, that Gen. of whom, whose of which, of what, whose Dat. to or for whom to or for which, to or for what Acc. whom, that which, what, that Abl. from, etc., whom from, etc., which or what

[Footnote 1: This table of meanings need not be memorized. It is inserted for reference when translating.]

a. We see from the table above that «quī», when it refers to a person, is translated by some form of who or by that; and that when it refers to anything else it is translated by which, what, or that.

«223.» Note the following sentences:

The Romans killed the men who were taken The Romans killed the woman who was taken «Rōmānī interfēcērunt virōs quī captī sunt» «Rōmānī interfēcērunt fēminam quae capta est»

In the first sentence who («quī») refers to the antecedent men («virōs»), and is masculine plural. In the second, who («quae») refers to woman («fēminam»), and feminine singular. From this we learn that the relative must agree with its antecedent in gender and number. In neither of the sentences are the antecedents and relatives in the same case. «Virōs» and «fēminam» are accusatives, and «quī» and «quae» are nominatives, being the subjects of the subordinate clauses. Hence

«224.» RULE. «Agreement of the Relative.» A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own clause.

«225.» «Interrogative Pronouns.» An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that asks a question. In English the interrogatives are who? which? what? In Latin they are «quis?» «quid?» (pronoun) and «quī?» «quae?» «quod?» (adjective).

«226.» Examine the sentences

a. Who is the man? «Quis est vir?» b. What man is leading them? «Quī vir eōs dūcit?»

In a, who is an interrogative pronoun. In b, what is an interrogative adjective. Observe that in Latin «quis», «quid» is the pronoun and «quī», «quae», «quod» is the adjective.

«227.» 1. The interrogative adjective «quī», «quae», «quod» is declined just like the relative pronoun. (See §221.)

2. The interrogative pronoun «quis», «quid» is declined like «quī», «quae», «quod» in the plural. In the singular it is declined as follows:

MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. Nom. «quis», who? «quid», what? which? Gen. «cuius», whose? «cuius», whose? Dat. «cui», to or for whom? «cui», to or for what or which? Acc. «quem», whom? «quid», what? which? Abl. «quō», from, etc., whom? «quō», from, etc., which or what?

NOTE. Observe that the masculine and feminine are alike and that all the forms are like the corresponding forms of the relative, excepting quis and quid.

«228.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Quis est aeger? Servus quem amō est aeger. 2. Cuius scūtum habēs? Scūtum habeō quod lēgātus ad castellum mīsit. 3. Cui lēgātus suum scūtum dabit? Fīliō meō scūtum dabit. 4. Ubi Germānī antīquī vīvēbant? In terrā quae est proxima Rhēnō Germānī vīvēbant. 5. Quibuscum[1] Germānī bellum gerēbant? Cum Rōmānīs, qui eōs superāre studēbant, Germānī bellum gerēbant. 6. Quī virī castra pōnunt? Iī sunt virī quōrum armīs Germānī victī sunt. 7. Quibus tēlīs cōpiae nostrae eguērunt? Gladiīs et telīs nostrae cōpiae eguērunt. 8. Ā quibus porta sinistra tenēbātur? Ā sociīs porta sinistra tenēbātur. 9. Quae prōvinciae ā Rōmānīs occupātae sunt? Multae prōvinciae ā Rōmānīs occupātae sunt. 10. Quibus virīs deī favēbunt? Bonīs virīs deī favēbunt.

[Footnote 1: «cum» is added to the ablative of relative, interrogative, and personal pronouns instead of being placed before them.]

[Illustration: GERMANI ANTIQUI]

II. 1. What victory will you announce? 2. I will announce to the people the victory which the sailors have won. 3. The men who were pitching camp were eager for battle. 4. Nevertheless they were soon conquered by the troops which Sextus had sent. 5. They could not resist our forces, but fled from that place without delay.

«229.» THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA (Concluded)[2]

Tarpēia, commōta ōrnamentīs Sabīnōrum pulchrīs, diū resistere nōn potuit et respondit: “Date mihi[3] ōrnāmenta quae in sinistrīs bracchīs geritis, et celeriter cōpiās vestrās in Capitōlium dūcam.” Nec Sabīnī recūsāvērunt, sed per dūrās magnāsque castellī portās properāvērunt quō[1] Tarpēia dūxit et mox intrā validōs et altōs mūrōs stābant. Tum sine morā in[2] Tarpēiam scūta graviter iēcērunt; nam scūta quoque in sinistrīs bracchiīs gerēbant. Ita perfida puella Tarpēia interfecta est; ita Sabīnī Capitōlium occupāvērunt.

[Footnote 2: Explain the use of the tenses in this selection.]

[Footnote 3: to me.]

[Footnote 1: quō = whither, to the place where. Here «quo» is the relative adverb. We have had it used before as the interrogative adverb, whither? to what place?]

[Footnote 2: upon.]

LESSON XXXIX

THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS

«barbarus, -a, -um», strange, foreign, barbarous. As a noun, «barbarī, -ōrum», m., plur., savages, barbarians «dux, ducis», m., leader (duke). Cf. the verb «dūcō» «eques, equitis», m., horseman, cavalryman (equestrian) iūdex, iūdicis, m., judge «lapis, lapidis», m., stone (lapidary) «mīles, mīlitis», m., soldier (militia) «pedes, peditis», m., foot soldier (pedestrian) «pēs, pedis»,[A] m., foot (pedal) «prīnceps, prīncipis», m., chief (principal) «rēx, rēgis», m., king (regal) «summus, -a, -um», highest, greatest (summit) «virtūs, virtūtis», f., manliness, courage (virtue)

[Footnote A: Observe that «e» is long in the nom. sing, and short in the other cases.]

«230.» «Bases and Stems.» In learning the first and second declensions we saw that the different cases were formed by adding the case terminations to the part of the word that did not change, which we called the «base». If to the base we add «-ā» in the first declension, and «-o» in the second, we get what is called the «stem». Thus «porta» has the base «port-» and the stem «portā-»; «servus» has the base «serv-» and the stem «servo-».

These stem vowels, «-ā-» and «-o-», play so important a part in the formation of the case terminations that these declensions are named from them respectively the Ā- and O-Declensions.

«231.» «Nouns of the Third Declension.» The third declension is called the Consonant or I-Declension, and its nouns are classified according to the way the stem ends. If the last letter of the stem is a consonant, the word is said to have a consonant stem; if the stem ends in «-i-», the word is said to have an «i-»stem. In consonant stems the stem is the same as the base. In «i-»stems the stem is formed by adding «-i-» to the base. The presence of the «i» makes a difference in certain of the cases, so the distinction is a very important one.

«232.» Consonant stems are divided into two classes:

I. Stems that add «-s» to the base to form the nominative singular. II. Stems that add no termination in the nominative singular.

CLASS I

«233.» Stems that add «-s» to the base in the nominative singular are either masculine or feminine and are declined as follows:

«prīnceps», «mīles», m., «lapis», m., chief soldier m., stone BASES OR STEMS «prīncip-» «mīlit-» «lapid-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. Nom. prīnceps mīles lapis -s Gen. prīn´cipis mīlitis lapidis -is Dat. prīn´cipī mīlitī lapidī -ī Acc. prīn´cipem mīlitem lapidem -em Abl. prīn´cipe mīlite lapide -e

PLURAL Nom. prīn´cipēs mīlitēs lapidēs -ēs Gen. prīn´cipum mīlitum lapidum -um Dat. prīnci´pibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus Acc. prīn´cipēs mīlitēs lapidēs -ēs Abl. prīnci´pibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus

«rēx», «iūdex», «virtūs», f., m., king m.,judge manliness BASES OR STEMS «rēg-» «iūdic-» «virtūt-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. Nom. rēx iūdex virtūs -s Gen. rēgis iūdicis virtū´tis -is Dat. rēgī iūdicī virtū´tī -ī Acc. rēgem iūdicem virtū´tem -em Abl. rēge iūdice virtū´te -e

PLURAL Nom. rēgēs iūdicēs virtū´tēs -ēs Gen. rēgum iūdicum virtū´tum -um Dat. rēgibus iūdicibus virtū´tibus -ibus Acc. rēgēs iūdicēs virtū´tēs -ēs Abl. rēgibus iūdicibus virtū´tibus -ibus

1. The base or stem is found by dropping «-is» in the genitive singular.

2. Most nouns of two syllables, like «prīnceps» («prīncip-»), «mīles» («mīlit-»), «iūdex» («iūdic-»), have «i» in the base, but «e» in the nominative.

a. «lapis» is an exception to this rule.

3. Observe the consonant changes of the base or stem in the nominative:

a. A final «-t» or «-d» is dropped before «-s»; thus «mīles» for «mīlets», «lapis» for «lapids», «virtūs» for «virtūts».

b. A final «-c» or «-g» unites with «-s» and forms «-x»; thus «iūdec» + «s» = «iūdex», «rēg» + «s» = «rēx».

4. Review §74 and apply the rules to this declension.

In like manner decline «dux, ducis», m., leader; «eques, equitis», m., horseman; «pedes, peditis», m., foot soldier; «pēs, pedis», m.,foot.

«234.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Neque peditēs neque equitēs occupāre castellum Rōmānum poterant. 2. Summā virtūte mūrōs altōs cotīdiē oppugnābant. 3. Pedes mīlitum lapidibus quī dē mūrō iaciēbantur saepe vulnerābantur. 4. Quod novum cōnsilium dux cēpit? 5. Is perfidam puellam pulchrīs ōrnāmentīs temptāvit. 6. Quid puella fēcit? 7. Puella commōta aurō mīlitēs per portās dūxit. 8. Tamen praemia quae summō studiō petīverat nōn reportāvit. 9. Apud Rōmānōs antīquōs Tarpēia nōn est laudāta.

II. 1. What ship is that which I see? That («illud») ship is the Victory. It is sailing now with a favorable wind and will soon approach Italy. 2. The judges commanded the savages to be seized and to be killed. 3. The chiefs of the savages suddenly began to flee, but were quickly captured by the horsemen. 4. The king led the foot soldiers to the wall from which the townsmen were hurling stones with the greatest zeal.

[Illustration: NAVIGIUM]

LESSON XL

THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS (Continued)

«Caesar, -aris», m., Cæsar «captīvus, -ī», m., captive, prisoner «cōnsul, -is», m., consul «frāter, frātris», m., brother (fraternity) «homō, hominis», m., man, human being «impedīmentum, -ī», n., hindrance (impediment); plur. «impedīmenta, -ōrum», baggage «imperātor, imperātōris», m., commander in chief, general (emperor) «legiō, legiōnis», f., legion «māter, mātris», f., mother (maternal) «ōrdō, ōrdinis», m., row, rank (order) «pater, patris», m., father (paternal) «salūs, salūtis», f., safety (salutary) «soror, sorōris», f., sister (sorority)

CLASS II

«235.» Consonant stems that add no termination in the nominative are declined in the other cases exactly like those that add «-s.» They may be masculine, feminine, or neuter.

«236.» PARADIGMS

MASCULINES AND FEMININES

«cōnsul», «legiō», f., «ōrdō», «pater», m., m., consul legion m., row father BASES OR STEMS «cōnsul-» «legiōn-» «ōrdin-» «patr-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. Nom. cōnsul legiō ōrdō pater -- Gen. cōnsulis legiōnis ōrdinis patris -is Dat. cōnsulī legiōnī ōrdinī patrī -ī Acc. cōnsulem legiōnem ōrdinem patrem -em Abl. cōnsule legiōne ōrdine patre -e

PLURAL Nom. cōnsulēs legiōnēs ōrdinēs patrēs -ēs Gen. cōnsulum legiōnum ōrdinum patrum -um Dat. cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus Acc. cōnsulēs legiōnēs ōrdinēs patrēs -ēs Abl. cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus

1. With the exception of the nominative, the terminations are exactly the same as in Class I, and the base or stem is found in the same way.

2. Masculines and feminines with bases or stems in -in- and -ōn- drop -n- and end in -ō in the nominative, as legiō (base or stem legiōn-), ōrdō (base or stem ōrdin-).

3. Bases or stems in -tr- have -ter in the nominative, as pater (base or stem patr-).

4. Note how the genitive singular gives the clue to the whole declension. Always learn this with the nominative.

«237.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Audīsne tubās, Mārce? Nōn sōlum tubās audiō sed etiam ōrdinēs militum et carrōs impedīmentōrum plēnōs vidēre possum. 2.Quās legiōnēs vidēmus? Eae legiōnēs nūper ex Galliā vēnērunt. 3. Quid ibi fēcērunt? Studēbantne pugnāre an sine virtūte erant? 4.Multa proelia fēcērunt[1] et magnās victōriās et multōs captīvōs reportāvērunt. 5.Quis est imperātor eārum legiōnum? Caesar, summus Rōmānōrum imperātor. 6.Quis est eques quī pulchram corōnam gerit? Is eques est frāter meus. Eī corōna ā cōnsule data est quia summā virtūte pugnāverat et ā barbarīs patriam servāverat.

II. 1. Who has seen my father to-day? 2. I saw him just now («nūper»). He was hastening to your dwelling with your mother and sister. 3. When men are far from the fatherland and lack food, they cannot be restrained[2] from wrong[3]. 4. The safety of the soldiers is dear to Cæsar, the general. 5. The chiefs were eager to storm a town full of grain which was held by the consul. 6. The king forbade the baggage of the captives to be destroyed.

[Footnote 1: «proelium facere» = to fight a battle.]

[Footnote 2: «contineō.» Cf. §180.]

[Footnote 3: Abl. iniūriā.]

LESSON XLI

THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS (Concluded)

«calamitās, calamitātis», f., loss, disaster, defeat (calamity) «caput, capitis», n., head (capital) «flūmen, flūminis», n., river (flume) «labor, labōris», m., labor, toil «opus, operis», n., work, task «ōrātor, ōrātōris», m., orator «rīpa, -ae», f., bank (of a stream) «tempus, temporis», n., time (temporal) «terror, terrōris», m., terror, fear «victor, victōris», m., victor

«accipiō, accipere, accēpī, acceptus», receive, accept «cōnfirmō, cōnfīrmāre, cōnfīrmāvī, cōnfīrmātus», strengthen, establish, encourage (confirm)

«238.» Neuter consonant stems add no termination in the nominative and are declined as follows:

«flūmen», «tempus», «opus», «caput», n., river n., time n., work n., head BASES OR STEMS «flūmin-» «tempor-» «oper-» «capit-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS Nom. flūmen tempus opus caput -- Gen. flūminis temporis operis capitis -is Dat. flūminī temporī operī capitī -ī Acc. flūmen tempus opus caput -- Abl. flūmine tempore opere capite -e

PLURAL Nom. flūmina tempora opera capita -a Gen. flūminum temporum operum capitum -um Dat. flūminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus Acc. flūmina tempora opera capita -a Abl. flūminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus

1. Review §74 and apply the rules to this declension.

2. Bases or stems in -in- have -e- instead of -i- in the nominative, as flūmen, base or stem flūmin-.

3. Most bases or stems in -er- and -or- have -us in the nominative, as opus, base or stem oper-; tempus, base or stem tempor-.

«239.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292.

I. 1. Barbarī ubi Rōmam cēpērunt, maxima rēgum opera dēlēvērunt. 2. Rōmānī multās calamitātēs ā barbarīs accēpērunt. 3. Ubi erat summus terror apud oppidānōs, animī dubiī eōrum ab ōrātōre clarō cōnfīrmāti sunt. 4. Rōma est in rīpīs fiūminis magnī. 5. Ubi Caesar imperātor mīlitēs suōs arma capere iussit, iī ā proeliō continērī nōn potuērunt. 6. Ubi proelium factum est, imperātor reperīrī nōn potuit. 7. Imperātor sagittā in capite vulnerātus erat et stāre nōn poterat. 8. Eum magnō labōre pedes ex proeliō portāvit. 9. Is bracchiīs suīs imperātōrem tenuit et eum ex perīculīs summīs servāvit. 10. Virtūte suā bonus mīles ab imperātōre corōnam accēpit.

II. 1. The consul placed a crown on the head of the victor. 2. Before the gates he was received by the townsmen. 3. A famous orator praised him and said, “By your labors you have saved the fatherland from disaster.” 4. The words of the orator were pleasing to the victor. 5. To save the fatherland was a great task.

[Illustration: Corona]

LESSON XLII

REVIEW LESSON

«240.» Review the paradigms in §§233, 236, 238; and decline all nouns of the third declension in this selection.

TERROR CIMBRICUS[1]

Ōlim Cimbrī et Teutonēs, populī Germāniae, cum fēminīs līberīsque Italiae adpropinquāverant et cōpiās Rōmānās maximō proeliō vīcerant. Ubi fuga legiōnum nūntiāta est, summus erat terror tōtīus Rōmae, et Rōmānī, graviter commōtī, sacra crēbra deīs faciēbant et salūtem petēbant.

Tum Mānlius ōrātor animōs populī ita cōnfīrmāvit:--“Magnam calamitātem accēpimus. Oppida nostra ā Cimbrīs Teutonibusque capiuntur, agricolae interficiuntur, agrī vāstantur, cōpiae barbarōrum Rōmae adpropinquant. Itaque, nisi novīs animīs proelium novum faciēmus et Germānōs ex patriā nostrā sine morā agēmus, erit nūlla salūs fēminīs nostrīs līberīsque. Servāte līberōs! Servāte patriam! Anteā superātī sumus quia imperātōrēs nostrī fuērunt īnfīrmī. Nunc Marius, clārus imperātor, quī iam multās aliās victōriās reportāvit, legiōnēs dūcet et animōs nostrōs terrōre Cimbricō līberāre mātūrābit.”

Marius tum in Āfricā bellum gerēbat. Sine morā ex Āfricā in Italiam vocātus est. Cōpiās novās nōn sōlum tōtī Italiae sed etiam prōvinciīs sociōrum imperāvit.[2] Disciplīnā autem dūrā labōribusque perpetuīs mīlitēs exercuit. Tum cum peditibus equitibusque, quī iam proeliō studēbant, ad Germānōrum castra celeriter properāvit. Diū et ācriter pugnātum est.[3] Dēnique barbarī fūgērunt et multī in fugā ab equitibus sunt interfectī. Marius pater patriae vocātus est.

[Footnote 1: About the year 100 B.C. the Romans were greatly alarmed by an invasion of barbarians from the north known as Cimbri and Teutons. They were traveling with wives and children, and had an army of 300,000 fighting men. Several Roman armies met defeat, and the city was in a panic. Then the Senate called upon Marius, their greatest general, to save the country. First he defeated the Teutons in Gaul. Next, returning to Italy, he met the Cimbri. A terrible battle ensued, in which the Cimbri were utterly destroyed; but the terror Cimbricus continued to haunt the Romans for many a year thereafter.]

[Footnote 2: He made a levy (of troops) upon, «imperāvit» with the acc. and the dat.]

[Footnote 3: Cf. §200. II. 2.]

LESSON XLIII

THE THIRD DECLENSION · I-STEMS

«animal, animālis (-ium[A])», n., animal «avis, avis (-ium)», f., bird (aviation) «caedēs, caedis (-ium)», f., slaughter calcar, calcāris (-ium), n., spur «cīvis, cīvis (-ium)», m. and f., citizen (civic) «cliēns, clientis (-ium)», m., retainer, dependent (client) «fīnis, fīnis (-ium)», m., end, limit (final); plur., country, territory «hostis, hostis (-ium)», m. and f., enemy in war (hostile). Distinguish from «inimīcus», which means a personal enemy «ignis, ignis (-ium)», m., fire (ignite) «īnsigne, īnsignis (-ium)», n. decoration, badge (ensign) «mare, maris (-ium[B])», n., sea (marine) «nāvis, nāvis (-ium)», f., ship (naval); «nāvis longa», man-of-war «turris, turris (-ium)», f., tower (turret) «urbs, urbis (-ium)», f., city (suburb). An «urbs» is larger than an «oppidum».

[Footnote A: The genitive plural ending «-ium» is written to mark the i-stems.]

[Footnote B: The genitive plural of «mare» is not in use.]

«241.» To decline a noun of the third declension correctly we must know whether or not it is an «i»-stem. Nouns with «i»-stems are

1. Masculines and feminines:

a. Nouns in «-ēs» and «-īs» with the same number of syllables in the genitive as in the nominative. Thus «caedēs, caedis», is an «i»-stem, but «mīles, mīlitis», is a consonant stem.

b. Nouns in «-ns» and «-rs».

c. Nouns of one syllable in «-s» or «-x» preceded by a consonant.

2. Neuters in «-e», «-al», and «-ar».

«242.» The declension of «i»-stems is nearly the same as that of consonant stems. Note the following differences:

a. Masculines and feminities have «-ium» in the genitive plural and «-īs» or «-ēs» in the accusative plural.

b. Neuters have «-ī» in the ablative singular, and an «-i-» in every form of the plural.

«243.» «Masculine and Feminine I-Stems.» Masculine and feminine «i»-stems are declined as follows:

«caedēs», f., «hostis», «urbs», f., «cliēns», m., slaughter m., enemy city retainer STEMS «caedi-» «hosti-» «urbi-» «clienti-» BASES «caed-» «host-» «urb-» «client-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. Nom. caedēs hostis urbs cliēns[1] -s, -is, or -ēs Gen. caedis hostis urbis clientis -is Dat. caedī hostī urbī clientī -ī Acc. caedem hostem urbem clientem -em (-im) Abl. caede hoste urbe cliente -e (-ī)

PLURAL Nom. caedēs hostēs urbēs clientēs -ēs Gen. caedium hostium urbium clientium -ium Dat. caedibus hostibus urbibus clientibus -ibus Acc. caedīs, -ēs hostīs, -ēs urbīs, -ēs clientīs, -ēs -īs, -ēs Abl. caedibus hostibus urbibus clientibus -ibus

[Footnote 1: Observe that the vowel before «-ns» is long, but that it is shortened before «-nt». Cf. §12.2, 3.]

1. «avis», «cīvis», «fīnis», «ignis», «nāvis» have the ablative singular in «-ī» or «-e».

2. «turris» has accusative «turrim» and ablative «turrī» or «turre».

«244.» «Neuter I-Stems.» Neuter «i»-stems are declined as follows:

«īnsigne», n., «animal», n., «calcar», decoration animal n., spur STEMS «īnsigni-» «animāli-» «calcāri-» BASES «īnsign-» «animāl-» «calcār-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS Nom. īnsigne animal calcar -e or -- Gen. īnsignis animālis calcāris -is Dat. īnsignī animālī calcārī -ī Acc. īnsigne animal calcar -e or -- Abl. īnsignī animālī calcārī -ī

PLURAL Nom. īnsignia animālia calcāria -ia Gen. īnsignium animālium calcārium -ium Dat. īnsignibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus Acc. īnsignia animālia calcāria -ia Abl. īnsignibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus

1. Review §74 and see how it applies to this declension.

2. The final «-i-» of the stem is usually dropped in the nominative. If not dropped, it is changed to «-e».

3. A long vowel is shortened before final «-l» or «-r». (Cf. §12.2.)

«245.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Quam urbem vidēmus? Urbs quam vidētis est Rōma. 2. Cīvēs Rōmānī urbem suam turribus altīs et mūrīs longīs mūnīverant. 3. Ventī nāvīs longās prohibēbant fīnibus hostium adpropinquāre. 4. Imperātor a clientibus suīs calcāria aurī et alia īnsignia accēpit. 5. Mīlitēs Rōmānī cum hostibus bella saeva gessērunt et eōs caede magnā superāvērunt. 6. Alia animālia terram, alia mare amant. 7. Nāvēs longae quae auxilium ad imperātōrem portābant ignī ab hostibus dēlētae sunt. 8. In eō marī avis multās vīdimus quae longē ā terrā volāverant. 9. Nōnne vīdistis nāvīs longās hostium et ignīs quibus urbs nostra vāstābātur? Certē, sed nec caedem cīvium nec fugam clientium vīdimus. 10. Avēs et alia animālia, ubi ignem vīdērunt, salūtem fugā petere celeriter incēpērunt. 11. Num. iūdex in peditum ōrdinibus stābat? Minimē, iūdex erat apud equitēs et equus eius īnsigne pulchrum gerēbat.

[Illustration: NAVES LONGAE]

II. 1. Because of the lack of grain the animals of the village were not able to live. 2. When the general[2] heard the rumor, he quickly sent a horseman to the village. 3. The horseman had a beautiful horse and wore spurs of gold. 4. He said to the citizens, “Send your retainers with horses and wagons to our camp, and you will receive an abundance of grain.” 5. With happy hearts they hastened to obey his words.[3]

[Footnote 2: Place first.]

[Footnote 3: Not the accusative. Why?]

LESSON XLIV

IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION · GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION

«arbor, arboris», f., tree (arbor) «collis, collis (-ium)», m., hill «dēns, dentis (-ium)», m., tooth (dentist) fōns, fontis (-ium), m.. fountain, spring; source «iter, itineris», n., march, journey, route (itinerary) «mēnsis, mēnsis (-ium)», m., month «moenia, -ium», n., plur., walls, fortifications. Cf. «mūrus» «mōns, montis (-ium)», m., mountain; «summus mōns», top of the mountain «numquam», adv., never «pōns, pontis», m., bridge (pontoon) «sanguis, sanguinis», m., blood (sanguinary) «summus, -a, -um», highest, greatest (summit) «trāns», prep, with acc., across (transatlantic) «vīs (vīs)», gen. plur. «virium», f. strength, force, violence (vim)

«246.» PARADIGMS

[Transcriber’s Note: The original text gives «vī-» and «vīr-» as the “Bases” of «vīs», and omits the “Stems” for both words. The forms have been regularized to agree with the inflectional table in the Appendix.]

«vīs», f., force «iter», n., march STEMS «vī-» and «vīri-» «iter-» and «itiner-» BASES «v-» and «vīr-» «iter-» and «itiner-»

SINGULAR Nom. vīs iter Gen. vīs (rare) itineris Dat. vī (rare) itinerī Acc. vim iter Abl. vī itinere

PLURAL Nom. vīrēs itinera Gen. vīrium itinerum Dat. vīribus itineribus Acc. vīrīs, or -ēs itinera Abl. vīribus itineribus

«247.» There are no rules for gender in the third declension that do not present numerous exceptions.[1] The following rules, however, are of great service, and should be thoroughly mastered:

1. «Masculine» are nouns in «-or», «-ōs», «-er», «-ĕs» (gen. «-itis»).

a. «arbor», tree, is feminine; and «iter», march, is neuter.

2. «Feminine» are nouns in «-ō», «-is», «-x», and in «-s» preceded by a consonant or by any long vowel but «ō».

a. Masculine are «collis» (hill), «lapis», «mēnsis» (month), «ōrdō», «pēs», and nouns in «-nis» and «-guis»--as «ignis», «sanguis» (blood)--and the four monosyllables

«dēns», a tooth; «mōns», a mountain «pōns», a bridge; «fōns», a fountain

3. «Neuters» are nouns in «-e», «-al», «-ar», «-n», «-ur», «-ŭs», and «caput».

[Footnote 1: Review §60. Words denoting males are, of course, masculine, and those denoting females, feminine.]

«248.» Give the gender of the following nouns and the rule by which it is determined:

«animal» «calamitās» «flūmen» «lapis» «nāvis» «avis» «caput» «ignis» «legiō» «opus» «caedēs» «eques» «īnsigne» «mare» «salūs» «calcar» «fīnis» «labor» «mīles» «urbs»

«249.» EXERCISES

I. The First Bridge over the Rhine. Salūs sociōrum erat semper cāra Rōmānīs. Ōlim Gallī, amīcī Rōmānōrum, multās iniūriās ab Germānīs quī trāns flūmen Rhēnum vivēbant accēperant. Ubi lēgātī ab iīs ad Caesarem imperātōrem Rōmānum vēnērunt et auxilium postulāvērunt, Rōmānī magnīs itineribus ad hostium fīnīs properāvērunt. Mox ad rīpās magnī flūminis vēnērunt. Imperātor studēbat cōpiās suās trāns fluvium dūcere, sed nūllā viā[2] poterat. Nūllās nāvīs habēbat. Alta erat aqua. Imperātor autem, vir clārus, numquam adversā fortūnā commōtus, novum cōnsilium cēpit. Iussit suōs[3] in[4] lātō flūmine facere pontem. Numquam anteā pōns in Rhēnō vīsus erat. Hostēs ubi pontem quem Rōmānī fēcerant vīdērunt, summō terrōre commōtī, sine morā fugam parāre incēpērunt.

II. 1. The enemy had taken (possession of) the top of the mountain. 2. There were many trees on the opposite hills. 3. We pitched our camp near («ad») a beautiful spring. 4. A march through the enemies’ country is never without danger. 5. The time of the month was suitable for the march. 6. The teeth of the monster were long. 7. When the foot soldiers[5] saw the blood of the captives, they began to assail the fortifications with the greatest violence.[2]

[Footnote 2: Abl. of manner.]

[Footnote 3: «suōs», used as a noun, his men.]

[Footnote 4: We say build a bridge over; the Romans, make a bridge on.]

[Footnote 5: Place first.]

«Fifth Review, Lessons XXXVII-XLIV, §§517-520»

LESSON XLV

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION · I-STEMS

«ācer, ācris, ācre», sharp, keen, eager (acrid) «brevis, breve», short, brief «difficilis, difficile», difficult «facilis, facile», facile, easy «fortis, forte», brave (fortitude) «gravis, grave», heavy, severe, serious (grave) «omnis, omne», every, all (omnibus) «pār», gen. «paris», equal (par) «paucī, -ae, -a», few, only a few (paucity) «secundus, -a, -um», second; favorable, opposite of adversus «signum, -ī», n., signal, sign, standard «vēlōx», gen. «vēlōcis», swift (velocity)

«conlocō, conlocāre, conlocāvī, conlocātus», arrange, station, place (collocation) «dēmōnstrō, dēmōnstrāre, dēmōnstrāvī, dēmōnstrātus», point out, explain (demonstrate) «mandō, mandāre, mandāvī, mandātus», commit, intrust (mandate)

«250.» Adjectives are either of the first and second declensions (like «bonus», «aeger», or «līber»), or they are of the third declension.

«251.» Nearly all adjectives of the third declension have «i»-stems, and they are declined almost like nouns with «i»-stems.

«252.» Adjectives learned thus far have had a different form in the nominative for each gender, as, «bonus», m.; «bona», f.; «bonum», n. Such an adjective is called an adjective of three endings. Adjectives of the third declension are of the following classes:

I. Adjectives of three endings-- a different form in the nominative for each gender.

II. Adjectives of two endings-- masculine and feminine nominative alike, the neuter different.

III. Adjectives of one ending-- masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative all alike.

«253.» Adjectives of the third declension in «-er» have three endings; those in «-is» have two endings; the others have one ending.

«254.» Adjectives of Three Endings are declined as follows:

«ācer, ācris, ācre», keen, eager STEM «ācri-» BASE «ācr-»

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. ācer ācris ācre ācrēs ācrēs ācria Gen. ācris ācris ācris ācrium ācrium ācrium Dat. ācrī ācrī ācrī ācribus ācribus ācribus Acc. ācrem ācrem ācre ācrīs, -ēs ācrīs, -ēs ācria Abl. ācrī ācrī ācrī ācribus ācribus ācribus

«255.» Adjectives of Two Endings are declined as follows:

«omnis, omne», every, all[1] STEM «omni-» BASE «omn-»

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. Nom. omnis omne omnēs omnia Gen. omnis omnis omnium omnium Dat. omnī omnī omnibus omnibus Acc. omnem omne omnīs, -ēs omnia Abl. omnī omnī omnibus omnibus

[Footnote 1: «omnis» is usually translated every in the singular and all in the plural.]

CLASS III

«256.» Adjectives of One Ending are declined as follows:

«pār», equal STEM «pari-» BASE «par-»

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. Nom. pār pār parēs paria Gen. paris paris parium parium Dat. parī parī paribus paribus Acc. parem pār parīs, -ēs paria Abl. parī parī paribus paribus

1. All «i»-stem adjectives have «-ī» in the ablative singular.

2. Observe that the several cases of adjectives of one ending have the same form for all genders excepting in the accusative singular and in the nominative and accusative plural.

3. Decline «vir ācer», «legiō ācris», «animal ācre», «ager omnis», «scūtum omne», «proelium pār».

«257.» There are a few adjectives of one ending that have consonant stems. They are declined exactly like nouns with consonant stems.

«258.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293.

I. The Romans invade the Enemy’s Country. Ōlim peditēs Rōmānī cum equitibus vēlōcibus in hostium urbem iter faciēbant. Ubi nōn longē āfuērunt, rapuērunt agricolam, quī eīs viam brevem et facilem dēmōnstrāvit. Iam Rōmānī moenia alta, turrīs validās aliaque opera urbis vidēre poterant. In moenibus stābant multī prīncipēs. Prīncipēs ubi vīdērunt Rōmānōs, iussērunt cīvīs lapidēs aliaque tēla dē mūrīs iacere. Tum mīlitēs fortēs continērī ā proeliō nōn poterant et ācer imperātor signum tubā darī iussit. Summā vī omnēs mātūrāvērunt. Imperātor Sextō lēgātō impedīmenta omnia mandāvit. Sextus impedīmenta in summō colle conlocāvit. Grave et ācre erat proelium, sed hostēs nōn parēs Rōmānīs erant. Aliī interfectī, aliī captī sunt. Apud captīvōs erant māter sororque rēgis. Paucī Rōmānōrum ab hostibus vulnerātī sunt. Secundum proelium Rōmānīs erat grātum. Fortūna fortibus semper favet.

II. 1. Some months are short, others are long. 2. To seize the top of the mountain was difficult. 3. Among the hills of Italy are many beautiful springs. 4. The soldiers were sitting where the baggage had been placed because their feet were weary. 5. The city which the soldiers were eager to storm had been fortified by strong walls and high towers. 6. Did not the king intrust a heavy crown of gold and all his money to a faithless slave? Yes, but the slave had never before been faithless.

[Illustration: AQUILA LEGIONIS]

LESSON XLVI

THE FOURTH OR U-DECLENSION

«adventus, -ūs», m., approach, arrival (advent) «ante», prep, with acc., before (ante-date) «cornū, -ūs», n., horn, wing of an army (cornucopia); «ā dextrō cornū», on the right wing; «ā sinistrō cornū», on the left wing «equitātus, -ūs», m., cavalry «exercitus, -ūs», m., army «impetus, -ūs», m., attack (impetus); «impetum facere in», with acc., to make an attack on «lacus, -ūs, dat. and abl. plur. lacubus», m., lake «manus, -ūs», f., hand; band, force (manual) «portus, -ūs», m., harbor (port) «post», prep, with acc., behind, after (post-mortem)

«cremō, cremāre, cremāvī, cremātus», burn (cremate) «exerceō, exercēre, exercuī, exercitus», practice, drill, train (exercise)

«259.» Nouns of the fourth declension are either masculine or neuter.

«260.» Masculine nouns end in «-us», neuters in «-ū». The genitive ends in «-ūs».

a. Feminine by exception are «domus», house; «manus», hand; and a few others.

PARADIGMS

[Transcriber’s Note: The “Stems” are missing in the printed book. They have been supplied from the inflectional table in the Appendix.]

«adventus», «cornū», m., arrival n., horn STEMS «adventu-» «cornu-» BASES «advent-» «corn-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS MASC. NEUT. Nom. adventus cornū -us -ū Gen. adventūs cornūs -ūs -ūs Dat. adventuī (ū) cornū -uī (ū) -ū Acc. adventum cornū -um -ū Abl. adventū cornū -ū -ū

PLURAL Nom. adventūs cornua -ūs -ua Gen. adventuum cornuum -uum -uum Dat. adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus Acc. adventūs cornua -ūs -ua Abl. adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus

1. Observe that the base is found, as in other declensions, by dropping the ending of the genitive singular.

2. «lacus», lake, has the ending «-ubus» in the dative and ablative plural; «portus», harbor, has either «-ubus» or «-ibus».

3. «cornū» is the only neuter that is in common use.

«261.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Ante adventum Caesaris vēlōcēs hostium equitēs ācrem impetum in castra fēcērunt. 2. Continēre exercitum ā proeliō nōn facile erat. 3. Post adventum suum Caesar iussit legiōnēs ex castrīs dūcī. 4. Prō castrīs cum hostium equitātū pugnātum est. 5. Post tempus breve equitātus trāns flūmen fūgit ubi castra hostium posita erant. 6. Tum victor imperātor agrōs vāstāvit et vīcōs hostium cremāvit. 7. Castra autem nōn oppugnāvit quia mīlitēs erant dēfessī et locus difficilis. 8. Hostēs nōn cessāvērunt iacere tēla, quae paucīs nocuērunt. 9. Post adversum proelium principēs Gallōrum lēgātōs ad Caesarem mittere studēbant, sed populō persuādēre nōn poterant.

II. 1. Did you see the man-of-war on the lake? 2. I did not see it (fem.) on the lake, but I saw it in the harbor. 3. Because of the strong wind the sailor forbade his brother to sail. 4. Cæsar didn´t make an attack on the cavalry on the right wing, did he? 5. No, he made an attack on the left wing. 6. Who taught your swift horse to obey? 7. I trained my horse with my (own) hands, nor was the task difficult. 8. He is a beautiful animal and has great strength.

LESSON XLVII

EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE · THE DECLENSION OF DOMUS

Athēnae, -ārum, f., plur., Athens Corinthus, -ī, f., Corinth «domus, -ūs», locative «domī», f., house, home (dome). Cf. «domicilium» «Genāva, -ae», f., Geneva Pompēii, -ōrum, m., plur., Pompeii, a city in Campania. See map «propter», prep. with acc., on account of, because of rūs, rūris, in the plur. only nom. and acc. «rūra», n., country (rustic) «tergum, tergī», n., back; «ā tergō», behind, in the rear «vulnus, vulneris», n., wound (vulnerable)

«committō, committere, commīsī, commissus», intrust, commit; «proelium committere», join battle «convocō, convocāre, convocāvī, convocātus», call together, summon (convoke) «timeō, timēre, timuī, ----», fear; be afraid (timid) «vertō, vertere, vertī, versus», turn, change (convert); «terga vertere», to turn the backs, hence to retreat

«262.» We have become thoroughly familiar with expressions like the following:

«Galba ad» (or «in») «oppidum properat» «Galba ab» («dē» or «ex») «oppidō properat» «Galba in oppidō habitat»

From these expressions we may deduce the following rules:

«263.» RULE. «Accusative of the Place to.» The «place to which» is expressed by «ad» or «in» with the accusative. This answers the question Whither?

«264.» RULE. «Ablative of the Place from.» The «place from which» is expressed by «ā» or «ab», «dē», «ē» or «ex», with the separative ablative. This answers the question Whence? (Cf. Rule, §179.)

«265.» RULE. «Ablative of the Place at or in.» The «place at or in which» is expressed by the ablative with «in». This answers the question Where?

a. The ablative denoting the place where is called the locative ablative (cf. «locus», place).

«266.» «Exceptions.» Names of towns, small islands,[1] «domus», home, «rūs», country, and a few other words in common use omit the prepositions in expressions of place, as,

«Galba Athēnās properat», Galba hastens to Athens «Galba Athēnīs properat», Galba hastens from Athens «Galba Athēnīs habitat», Galba lives at (or in) Athens «Galba domum properat», Galba hastens home «Galba rūs properat», Galba hastens to the country «Galba domō properat», Galba hastens from home «Galba rūre properat», Galba hastens from the country «Galba rūrī» (less commonly «rūre») «habitat», Galba lives in the country

a. Names of countries, like «Germānia», «Italia», etc., do not come under these exceptions. With them prepositions must not be omitted.

[Footnote 1: Small islands are classed with towns because they generally have but one town, and the name of the town is the same as the name of the island.]

«267.» «The Locative Case.» We saw above that the place-relation expressed by at or in is regularly covered by the locative ablative. However, Latin originally expressed this relation by a separate form known as the locative case. This case has been everywhere merged in the ablative excepting in the singular number of the first and second declensions. The form of the locative in these declensions is like the genitive singular, and its use is limited to names of towns and small islands, «domī», at home, and a few other words.

«268.» RULE. «Locative and Locative Ablative.» To express the «place in which» with names of towns and small islands, «if they are singular and of the first or second declension», use the locative; otherwise use the locative ablative without a preposition; as,

«Galba Rōmae habitat», Galba lives at Rome «Galba Corinthī habitat», Galba lives at Corinth «Galba domī habitat», Galba lives at home

Here «Rōmae», «Corinthī», and «domī» are locatives, being singular and of the first and second declensions respectively. But in

«Galba Athēnīs habitat», Galba lives at Athens, «Galba Pompēiīs habitat», Galba lives at Pompeii

«Athēnīs» and «Pompēiīs» are locative ablatives. These words can have no locative case, as the nominatives «Athēnae» and «Pompēiī» are plural and there is no plural locative case form.

«269.» The word «domus», home, house, has forms of both the second and the fourth declension. Learn its declension (§468).

«270.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Corinthī omnia īnsignia aurī ā ducibus victōribus rapta erant. 2. Caesar Genāvam exercitum magnīs itineribus dūxit. 3. Quem pontem hostēs cremāverant? Pontem in Rhēnō hostēs cremāverant. 4. Pompēiīs multās Rōmānōrum domōs vidēre poteritis. 5. Rōmā cōnsul equō vēlōcī rūs properāvit. 6. Domī cōnsulis hominēs multī sedēbant. 7. Imperātor iusserat lēgātum Athēnās cum multīs nāvibus longīs nāvigāre. 8. Ante moenia urbis sunt ōrdinēs arborum altārum. 9. Propter arborēs altās nec lacum nec portum reperīre potuimus. 10. Proeliīs crēbrīs Caesar legiōnēs suās quae erant in Galliā exercēbat. 11. Cotīdiē in locō idoneō castra pōnēbat et mūniēbat.

II. 1. Cæsar, the famous general, when he had departed from Rome, hastened to the Roman province on a swift horse.[2] 2. He had heard a rumor concerning the allies at Geneva. 3. After his arrival Cæsar called the soldiers together and commanded them to join battle. 4. The enemy hastened to retreat, some because[3] they were afraid, others because[3] of wounds. 5. Recently I was at Athens and saw the place where the judges used to sit.[4] 6. Marcus and Sextus are my brothers; the one lives at Rome, the other in the country.

[Footnote 2: Latin says “by a swift horse.” What construction?]

[Footnote 3: Distinguish between the English conjunction because («quia» or «quod») and the preposition because of («propter»).]

[Footnote 4: used to sit, express by the imperfect.]

[Illustration: DAEDALUS ET ICARUS]

«271.» DAED´ALUS AND IC´ARUS

Crēta est īnsula antīqua quae aquā altā magnī maris pulsātur. Ibi ōlim Mīnōs erat rēx. Ad eum vēnit Daedalus quī ex Graeciā patriā fugiēbat. Eum Mīnōs rēx benignīs verbīs accēpit et eī domicilium in Crētā dedit. [5]Quō in locō Daedalus sine cūrā vīvebat et rēgī multa et clāra opera faciēbat. Post tempus longum autem Daedalus patriam cāram dēsīderāre incēpit. Domum properāre studēbat, sed rēgī persuādēre nōn potuit et mare saevum fugam vetābat.

[Footnote 5: And in this place; «quō» does not here introduce a subordinate relative clause, but establishes the connection with the preceding sentence. Such a relative is called a connecting relative, and is translated by and and a demonstrative or personal pronoun.]

LESSON XLVIII

THE FIFTH OR Ē-DECLENSION · THE ABLATIVE OF TIME

«aciēs, -ēī», f., line of battle «aestās, aestātis», f., summer «annus, -ī», m., year (annual) «diēs, diēī», m., day (diary) «fidēs, fideī», no plur., f., faith, trust; promise, word; protection; «in fidem venīre», to come under the protection «fluctus, -ūs», m. wave, billow (fluctuate) «hiems, hiemis», f., winter «hōra, -ae», f., hour «lūx, lūcis», f., light (lucid); «prīma lux», daybreak «merīdiēs», acc. -em, abl. -ē, no plur., m., midday (meridian) «nox, noctis (-ium)», f., night (nocturnal) «prīmus, -a, -um», first (prime) «rēs, reī», f., thing, matter (real); «rēs gestae», deeds, exploits (lit. things performed); «rēs adversae», adversity; «rēs secundae», prosperity «spēs, speī», f., hope

«272.» «Gender.» Nouns of the fifth declension are feminine except «diēs», day, and «merīdiēs», midday, which are usually masculine.

«273.» PARADIGMS

«diēs», «rēs», f., m., day thing STEMS «diē-» «rē-» BASES «di-» «r-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS Nom. diēs rēs -ēs Gen. diēī reī -ē̆ī Dat. diēī reī -ē̆ī Acc. diem rem -em Abl. diē rē -ē

PLURAL Nom. diēs rēs -ēs Gen. diērum rērum -ērum Dat. diēbus rēbus -ēbus Acc. diēs rēs -ēs Abl. diēbus rēbus -ēbus

1. The vowel «e» which appears in every form is regularly long. It is shortened in the ending «-eī» after a consonant, as in «r-ĕī»; and before «-m» in the accusative singular, as in «di-em». (Cf. §12.2.)

2. Only «diēs» and «rēs» are complete in the plural. Most other nouns of this declension lack the plural. «Aciēs», line of battle, and «spēs», hope, have the nominative and accusative plural.

«274.» The ablative relation (§50) which is expressed by the prepositions at, in, or on may refer not only to place, but also to time, as at noon, in summer, on the first day. The ablative which is used to express this relation is called the ablative of time.

«275.» RULE. «The Ablative of Time.» The time «when» or «within which» anything happens is expressed by the ablative without a preposition.

a. Occasionally the preposition «in» is found. Compare the English Next day we started and «On» the next day we started.

«276.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 294.

I. Galba the Farmer. Galba agricola rūrī vīvit. Cotīdiē prīmā lūce labōrāre incipit, nec ante noctem in studiō suō cessat. Merīdiē Iūlia fīlia eum ad cēnam vocat. Nocte pedēs dēfessōs domum vertit. Aestāte fīliī agricolae auxilium patrī dant. Hieme agricola eōs in lūdum mittit. Ibi magister pueris multās fābulās dē rēbus gestīs Caesaris nārrat. Aestāte fīliī agricolae perpetuīs labōribus exercentur nec grave agrī opus est iīs molestum. Galba sine ūllā cūrā vivit nec rēs adversās timet.

II. 1. In that month there were many battles in Gaul. 2. The cavalry of the enemy made an attack upon Cæsar’s line of battle. 3. In the first hour of the night the ship was overcome by the billows. 4. On the second day the savages were eager to come under Cæsar’s protection. 5. The king had joined battle, moved by the hope of victory. 6. That year a fire destroyed many birds and other animals. 7. We saw blood on the wild beast’s teeth.

«277.» DAED´ALUS AND IC´ARUS (Continued)

Tum Daedalus gravibus cūrīs commōtus fīliō suō Īcarō ita dixit: “Animus meus, Īcare, est plēnus trīstitiae nec oculī lacrimīs egent. Discēdere ex Crētā, Athēnās properāre, maximē studeō; sed rēx recūsat audīre verba mea et omnem reditūs spem ēripit. Sed numquam rēbus adversīs vincar. Terra et mare sunt inimīca, sed aliam fugae viam reperiam.” Tum in artīs ignōtās animum dīmittit et mīrum capit cōnsilium. Nam pennās in ōrdine pōnit et vērās ālās facit.

LESSON XLIX

PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED · PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

«amīcitia, -ae», f., friendship (amicable) «itaque», conj., and so, therefore, accordingly «littera, -ae», f., a letter of the alphabet; plur., a letter, an epistle «metus, metūs», m., fear «nihil, indeclinable», n., nothing (nihilist) «nūntius, nūntī», m., messenger. Cf. «nūntiō» «pāx, pācis», f., peace (pacify) «rēgnum, -ī», n., reign, sovereignty, kingdom «supplicum, suppli´cī», n., punishment; «supplicum sūmere dē», with abl., inflict punishment on; «supplicum dare», suffer punishment. Cf. «poena»

«placeō, placēre, placuī, placitus», be pleasing to, please, with dative. Cf. §154 «sūmō, sūmere, sūmpsī, sūmptus», take up, assume «sustineō, sustinēre, sustinuī, sustentus», sustain

«278.» We have the same kinds of pronouns in Latin as in English. They are divided into the following eight classes:

1. «Personal pronouns», which show the person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of; as, «ego», I; «tū», you; «is», he. (Cf. §279. etc.)

2. «Possessive pronouns», which denote possession; as, «meus», «tuus», «suus», etc. (Cf. §98.)

3. «Reflexive pronouns», used in the predicate to refer back to the subject; as, he saw himself. (Cf. §281.)

4. «Intensive pronouns», used to emphasize a noun or pronoun; as, I myself saw it. (Cf. §285.)

5. «Demonstrative pronouns», which point out persons or things; as, «is», this, that. (Cf. §112.)

6. «Relative pronouns», which connect a subordinate adjective clause with an antecedent; as, «quī», who. (Cf. §220.)

7. «Interrogative pronouns», which ask a question; as, «quis», who? (Cf. §225.)

8. «Indefinite pronouns», which point out indefinitely; as, some one, any one, some, certain ones, etc. (Cf. §296.)

«279.» The demonstrative pronoun «is», «ea», «id», as we learned in §115, is regularly used as the personal pronoun of the third person (he, she, it, they, etc.).

«280.» The personal pronouns of the first person are «ego», I; «nōs», we; of the second person, «tū», thou or you; «vōs», ye or you. They are declined as follows:

SINGULAR FIRST PERSON SECOND PERSON Nom. ego, I tū, you Gen. meī, of me tuī, of you Dat. mihi, to or for me tibi, to or for you Acc. mē, me tē, you Abl. mē, with, from, etc., me tē, with, from, etc., you

PLURAL Nom. nōs, we vōs, you Gen. nostrum or nostrī, of us vestrum or vestrī, of you Dat. nōbīs, to or for us vōbīs, to or for you Acc. nōs, us vōs, you Abl. nōbīs, with, from, vōbīs, with, from, etc., you etc., us

1. The personal pronouns are not used in the nominative excepting for emphasis or contrast.

«281.» «The Reflexive Pronouns.» 1. The personal pronouns «ego» and «tū» may be used in the predicate as reflexives; as,

«videō mē», I see myself «vidēmus nōs», we see ourselves «vidēs tē», you see yourself «vidētis vōs», you see yourselves

2. The reflexive pronoun of the third person (himself, herself, itself, themselves) has a special form, used only in these senses, and declined alike in the singular and plural.

SINGULAR AND PLURAL Gen. suī Acc. sē Dat. sibi Abl. sē

EXAMPLES «Puer sē videt», the boy sees himself «Puella sē videt», the girl sees herself «Animal sē videt», the animal sees itself «Iī sē vident», they see themselves

a. The form «sē» is sometimes doubled, «sēsē», for emphasis.

3. Give the Latin for

I teach myself We teach ourselves You teach yourself You teach yourselves He teaches himself They teach themselves

«282.» The preposition «cum», when used with the ablative of «ego», «tū», or «suī», is appended to the form, as, «mēcum», with me; «tēcum», with you; «nōbīscum», with us; etc.

«283.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Mea māter est cāra mihi et tua māter est cāra tibi. 2. Vestrae litterae erant grātae nōbis et nostrae litterae erant grātae vōbīs. 3. Nūntius rēgis quī nōbīscum est nihil respondēbit. 4. Nūntiī pācem amīcitiamque sibi et suīs sociīs postulāvērunt. 5. Sī tū arma sūmēs, ego rēgnum occupābō. 6. Uter vestrum est cīvis Rōmānus? Neuter nostrum. 7. Eō tempore multī supplicium dedērunt quia rēgnum petierant. 8. Sūme supplicium, Caesar, dē hostibus patriae ācribus. 9. Prīmā lūce aliī metū commōtī sēsē fugae mandāvērunt; aliī autem magnā virtūte impetum exercitūs nostrī sustinuērunt. 10. Soror rēgis, ubi dē adversō proeliō audīvit, sēsē Pompēiīs interfēcit.

II. 1. Whom do you teach? I teach myself. 2. The soldier wounded himself with his sword. 3. The master praises us, but you he does not praise. 4. Therefore he will inflict punishment on you, but we shall not suffer punishment. 5. Who will march (i.e. make a march) with me to Rome? 6. I will march with you to the gates of the city. 7. Who will show us[1] the way? The gods will show you[1] the way.

[Footnote 1: Not accusative.]

DAED´ALUS AND IC´ARUS (Concluded)

«284.» Puer Īcarus ūnā[2] stābat et mīrum patris opus vidēbat. Postquam manus ultima[3] ālīs imposita est, Daedalus eās temptāvit et similis avī in aurās volāvit. Tum ālās umerīs fīlī adligāvit et docuit eum volāre et dīxit, “Tē vetō, mī fīlī, adpropinquāre aut sōlī aut marī. Sī fluctibus adpropinquāveris,[4] aqua ālīs tuīs nocēbit, et sī sōlī adpropinquāveris,[4] ignis eās cremābit.” Tum pater et filius iter difficile incipiunt. Ālās movent et aurae sēsē committunt. Sed stultus puer verbīs patris nōn pāret. Sōlī adpropinquat. Ālae cremantur et Īcarus in mare dēcidit et vitam āmittit. Daedalus autem sine ūllō perīculō trāns fluctūs ad īnsulam Siciliam volāvit.

[Footnote 2: Adverb, see vocabulary.]

[Footnote 3: «manus ultima», the finishing touch. What literally?]

[Footnote 4: Future perfect. Translate by the present.]

LESSON L

THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN IPSE AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE ĪDEM

«corpus, corporis», n., body (corporal) «dēnsus, -a, -um», dense «īdem, e´adem, idem», demonstrative pronoun, the same (identity) «ipse, ipsa, ipsum», intensive pronoun, self; even, very «mīrus, -a, -um», wonderful, marvelous (miracle) «ōlim», adv., formerly, once upon a time «pars, partis (-ium)», f., part, region, direction «quoque», adv., also. Stands after the word which it emphasizes «sōl, sōlis», m., sun (solar) «vērus, -a, -um», true, real (verity)

«dēbeō, dēbēre, dēbuī, dēbitus», owe, ought (debt) «ēripiō, ēripere, ēripuī, ēreptus», snatch from

«285.» «Ipse» means -self (him-self, her-self, etc.) or is translated by even or very. It is used to emphasize a noun or pronoun, expressed or understood, with which it agrees like an adjective.

a. «Ipse» must be carefully distinguished from the reflexive «suī». The latter is always used as a pronoun, while «ipse» is regularly adjective. Compare

«Homō sē videt», the man sees himself (reflexive) «Homō ipse perīculum videt», the man himself (intensive) sees the danger «Homō ipsum perīculum videt», the man sees the danger itself (intensive)

«286.» Except for the one form «ipse», the intensive pronoun is declined exactly like the nine irregular adjectives (cf. §§108, 109). Learn the declension (§481).

«287.» The demonstrative «īdem», meaning the same, is a compound of «is». It is declined as follows:

SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. īdem e´adem idem Gen. eius´dem eius´dem eius´dem Dat. eī´dem eī´dem eī´dem Acc. eun´dem ean´dem idem Abl. eō´dem eā´dem eō´dem

PLURAL Nom. iī´dem eae´dem e´adem eī´dem Gen. eōrun´dem eārun´dem eōrun´dem Dat. iīs´dem iīs´dem iīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem Acc. eōs´dem eās´dem e´adem Abl. iīs´dem iīs´dem iīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem

a. From forms like «eundem» (eum + -dem), «eōrundem» (eōrum + -dem), we learn the rule that «m» before «d» is changed to «n».

b. The forms «iīdem», «iīsdem» are often spelled and pronounced with one «ī».

«288.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295.

I. 1. Ego et tū[1] in eādem urbe vīvimus. 2. Iter ipsum nōn timēmus sed ferās saevās quae in silvā dēnsā esse dīcuntur. 3. Ōlim nōs ipsī idem iter fēcimus. 4. Eō tempore multās ferās vīdimus. 5. Sed nōbīs nōn nocuērunt. 6. Caesar ipse scūtum dē manibus mīlitis ēripuit et in ipsam aciem properāvit. 7. Itaque mīlitēs summā virtūte tēla in hostium corpora iēcērunt. 8. Rōmānī quoque gravia vulnera accēpērunt. 9. Dēnique hostēs terga vertērunt et ommīs in partīs[2] fūgērunt. 10. Eādem hōrā litterae Rōmam ab imperātōre ipsō missae sunt. 11. Eōdem mēnse captīvī quoque in Italiam missī sunt. 12. Sed multī propter vulnera iter difficile trāns montīs facere recūsābant et Genāvae esse dīcēbantur.

II. 1. At Pompeii there is a wonderful mountain. 2. When I was in that place, I myself saw that mountain. 3. On the same day many cities were destroyed by fire and stones from that very mountain. 4. You have not heard the true story of that calamity, have you?[3] 5. On that day the very sun could not give light to men. 6. You yourself ought to tell (to) us that story.

[Footnote 1: Observe that in Latin we say I and you, not you and I.]

[Footnote 2: Not parts, but directions.]

[Footnote 3: Cf. §210.]

«289.» HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE[4]

Tarquinius Superbus, septimus et ultimus rēx Rōmānōrum, ubi in exsilium ab īrātīs Rōmānīs ēiectus est, ā Porsenā, rēge Etrūscōrum, auxilium petiit. Mox Porsena magnīs cum cōpiīs Rōmam vēnit, et ipsa urbs summō in perīculō erat. Omnibus in partibus exercitus Rōmānus victus erat. Iam rēx montem Iāniculum[5] occupāverat. Numquam anteā Rōmānī tantō metū tenēbantur. Ex agrīs in urbem properābant et summō studiō urbem ipsam mūniēbant.

[Footnote 4: The story of Horatius has been made familiar by Macaulay’s well-known poem “Horatius” in his Lays of Ancient Rome. Read the poem in connection with this selection.]

[Footnote 5: The Janiculum is a high hill across the Tiber from Rome.]

LESSON LI

THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS HIC, ISTE, ILLE

«hic, haec, hoc», demonstrative pronoun, this (of mine); he, she, it «ille, illa, illud», demonstrative pronoun that (yonder); he, she, it «invīsus, -a, -um», hateful, detested, with dative Cf. §143 «iste, ista, istud», demonstrative pronoun, that (of yours); he, she, it «lībertās, -ātis», f., liberty «modus, -ī», m., measure; manner, way, mode «nōmen, nōminis», n., name (nominate) «oculus, -ī», m., eye (oculist) «prīstinus, -a, -um», former, old-time (pristine) «pūblicus, -a, -um», public, belonging to the state; «rēs pūblica, reī pūblicae», f., the commonwealth, the state, the republic «vestīgium, vestī´gī», n., footprint, track; trace, vestige «vōx, vōcis», f., voice

«290.» We have already learned the declension of the demonstrative pronoun «is» and its use. (Cf. Lesson XVII.) That pronoun refers to persons or things either far or near, and makes no definite reference to place or time. If we wish to point out an object definitely in place or time, we must use «hic», «iste», or «ille.» These demonstratives, like «is», are used both as pronouns and as adjectives, and their relation to the speaker may be represented graphically thus:

«hic» «iste» «ille» SPEAKER ------------->-------------->---------------> this, he; that, he; that, he (near); (remote); (more remote)

a. In dialogue «hic» refers to a person or thing near the speaker; «iste», to a person or thing near the person addressed; «ille», to a person or thing remote from both. These distinctions are illustrated in the model sentences, §293, which should be carefully studied and imitated.

«291.» «Hic» is declined as follows:

SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. hic haec hoc Gen. huius huius huius Dat. huic huic huic Acc. hunc hanc hoc Abl. hōc hāc hōc

PLURAL Nom. hī hae haec Gen. hōrum hārum hōrum Dat. hīs hīs hīs Acc. hōs hās haec Abl. hīs hīs hīs

a. «Huius» is pronounced ho͝o´yo͝os, and «huic» is pronounced ho͝oic (one syllable).

«292.» The demonstrative pronouns «iste», «ista», «istud», and «ille», «illa», «illud», except for the nominative and accusative singular neuter forms «istud» and «illud», are declined exactly like «ipse», «ipsa», «ipsum.» (See §481.)

«293.» «MODEL SENTENCES»

Is this horse (of mine) strong? «Estne hic equus validus?»

That horse (of yours) is strong, but that one (yonder) is weak «Iste equus est validus, sed ille est īnfīrmus»

Are these (men by me) your friends? «Suntne hī amīcī tuī?»

Those (men by you) are my friends, but those (men yonder) are enemies «Istī sunt amīcī meī, sed illī sunt inimīcī»

«294.» EXERCISES

I. A German Chieftain addresses his Followers. Ille fortis Germānōrum dux suōs convocāvit et hōc modō animōs eōrum cōnfirmāvit. “Vōs, quī in hīs fīnibus vīvitis, in hunc locum convocāvī[1] quia mēcum dēbētis istōs agrōs et istās domōs ab iniūriīs Rōmānōrum liberāre. Hoc nōbīs nōn difficile erit, quod illī hostēs hās silvās dēnsās, ferās saevās quārum vestīgia vident, montēs altōs timent. Sī fortēs erimus, deī ipsī nōbīs viam salūtis dēmonstrābunt. Ille sōl, istī oculī calamītātēs nostrās vīdērunt.[1] Itaque nōmen illīus reī pūblicae Rōmānae nōn sōlum nōbis, sed etiam omnibus hominibus quī lībertātem amant, est invīsum. Ad arma vōs vocō. Exercēte istam prīstinam virtūtem et vincētis.”

[Footnote 1: The perfect definite. (Cf. §190.)]

II. 1. Does that bird (of yours)[2] sing? 2. This bird (of mine)[2] sings both[3] in summer and in winter and has a beautiful voice. 3. Those birds (yonder)[2] in the country don´t sing in winter. 4. Snatch a spear from the hands of that soldier (near you)[2] and come home with me. 5. With those very eyes (of yours)[2] you will see the tracks of the hateful enemy who burned my dwelling and made an attack on my brother. 6. For («propter») these deeds («rēs») we ought to inflict punishment on him without delay. 7. The enemies of the republic do not always suffer punishment.

[Footnote 2: English words in parentheses are not to be translated. They are inserted to show what demonstratives should be used. (Cf. §290.)]

[Footnote 3: both ... and, «et ... et».]

[Illustration: HORATIUS PONTEM DEFENDIT]

«295.» HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (Continued)

Altera urbis pars mūrīs, altera flūmine satis mūnīrī vidēbātur. Sed erat pōns in flūmine quī hostibus iter paene dedit. Tum Horātius Cocles, fortis vir, magnā vōce dīxit, “Rescindite pontem, Rōmānī! Brevī tempore Porsena in urbem cōpiās suās trādūcet.” Iam hostēs in ponte erant, sed Horātius cum duōbus (cf. §479) comitibus ad extrēmam pontis partem properāvit, et hi sōli aciem hostium sustinuērunt. Tum vērō cīvēs Rōmānī pontem ā tergō rescindere incipiunt, et hostēs frūstrā Horātium superāre temptant.

LESSON LII

THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

«incolumis, -e», unharmed «nē ... quidem», adv., not even. The emphatic word stands between «nē» and «quidem» «nisi», conj., unless, if ... not «paene», adv., almost (pen-insula) «satis», adv., enough, sufficiently (satisfaction) «tantus, -a, -um», so great «vērō», adv., truly, indeed, in fact. As a conj. but, however, usually stands second, never first.

«dēcidō, dēcidere, dēcidī, ----», fall down (deciduous) «dēsiliō, dēsilīre, dēsiluī, dēsultus», leap down, dismount «maneō, manēre, mānsī, mānsūrus», remain «trādūcō, trādūcere, trādūxī, trāductus», lead across

«296.» The indefinite pronouns are used to refer to some person or some thing, without indicating which particular one is meant. The pronouns «quis» and «quī», which we have learned in their interrogative and relative uses, may also be indefinite; and nearly all the other indefinite pronouns are compounds of «quis» or «quī» and declined almost like them. Review the declension of these words, §§221, 227.

«297.» Learn the declension and meaning of the following indefinites:

MASC. FEM. NEUT. «quis» «quid», some one, any one (substantive) «quī» «qua» or «quae» «quod», some, any (adjective), §483 «aliquis» «aliquid», some one, any one (substantive), §487 «aliquī» «aliqua» «aliquod», some, any (adjective), §487 «quīdam» «quaedam» «quoddam», «quiddam», a certain, a certain one, §485 «quisquam» «quicquam» or «quidquam» (no plural), any one (at all) (substantive), §486 «quisque» «quidque», each one, every one (substantive), §484 «quisque» «quaeque» «quodque», each, every (adjective), §484

[Transcriber’s Note: In the original text, the combined forms (masculine/feminine) were printed in the “masculine” column.]

NOTE. The meanings of the neuters, something, etc., are easily inferred from the masculine and feminine.

a. In the masculine and neuter singular of the indefinites, «quis-»forms and «quid-»forms are mostly used as substantives, «quī-»forms and «quod-»forms as adjectives.

b. The indefinites «quis» and «quī» never stand first in a clause, and are rare excepting after «sī», «nisi», «nē», «num» (as, «sī quis», if any one; «sī quid», if anything; «nisi quis», unless some one). Generally «aliquis» and «aliquī» are used instead.

c. The forms «qua» and «aliqua» are both feminine nominative singular and neuter nominative plural of the indefinite adjectives «quī» and «aliquī» respectively. How do these differ from the corresponding forms of the relative «quī?»

d. Observe that «quīdam» (quī + -dam) is declined like «quī», except that in the accusative singular and genitive plural «m» of «quī» becomes «n» (cf. §287.a): «quendam», «quandam», «quōrundam», «quārundam;» also that the neuter has «quiddam» (substantive) and «quoddam» (adjective) in the nominative and accusative singular. «Quīdam» is the least indefinite of the indefinite pronouns, and implies that you could name the person or thing referred to if you cared to do so.

e. «Quisquam» and «quisque» (substantive) are declined like «quis.»

f. «Quisquam», any one («quicquam» or «quidquam», anything), is always used substantively and chiefly in negative sentences. The corresponding adjective any is «ūllus, -a, -um» (§108).

«298.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Aliquis dē ponte in flūmen dēcidit sed sine ūllō perīculō servātus est. 2. Est vērō in vītā cuiusque hominis aliqua bona fortūna. 3. Nē mīlitum quidem[1] quisquam in castrīs mānsit. 4. Sī quem meae domī vidēs, iubē eum discēdere. 5. Sī quis pontem tenet, nē tantus quidem exercitus capere urbem potest. 6. Urbs nōn satis mūnīta erat et merīdiē rēx quīdam paene cōpiās suās trāns pontem trādūxerat. 7. Dēnique mīles quīdam armātus in fluctūs dēsiluit et incolumis ad alteram rīpam oculōs vertit. 8. Quisque illī fortī mīlitī aliquid dare dēbet. 9. Tanta vērō virtūs Rōmānīs semper placuit. 10. Ōlim Corinthus erat urbs satis magna et paene par Rōmae ipsī; nunc vērō moenia dēcidērunt et pauca vestīgia urbis illīus reperīrī possunt. 11. Quisque lībertātem amat, et aliquibus vērō nōmen rēgis est invīsum.

II. 1. If you see a certain Cornelius at Corinth, send him to me. 2. Almost all the soldiers who fell down into the waves were unharmed. 3. Not even at Pompeii did I see so great a fire. 4. I myself was eager to tell something to some one. 5. Each one was praising his own work. 6. Did you see some one in the country? I did not see any one. 7. Unless some one will remain on the bridge with Horatius, the commonwealth will be in the greatest danger.

[Footnote 1: Observe that «quīdam» and «quidem» are different words.]

«299.» HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (Concluded)

Mox, ubi parva pars pontis mānsit, Horātius iussit comitēs discēdere et sōlus mīrā cōnstantiā impetum illius tōtius exercitūs sustinēbat. Dēnique magnō fragōre pōns in flūmen dēcīdit. Tum vērō Horātius tergum vertit et armātus in aquās dēsiluit. In eum hostēs multa tēla iēcērunt; incolumis autem per fluctūs ad alteram rīpam trānāvit. Eī propter tantās rēs gestās populus Rōmānus nōn sōlum alia magna praemia dedit sed etiam statuam Horāti in locō pūblicō posuit.

«Sixth Review, Lessons XLV-LII, §§521-523»

LESSON LIII

REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

«aquila, -ae», f., eagle (aquiline) «audāx», gen. «audācis», adj., bold, audacious «celer, celeris, celere», swift, quick (celerity). Cf. «vēlōx» «explōratōr, -ōris», m., scout, spy (explorer) «ingēns», gen. «ingentis», adj., huge, vast «medius, -a, -um», middle, middle part of (medium) «mēns, mentis (-ium)», f., mind (mental). Cf. «animus» «opportūnus, -a, -um», opportune «quam», adv., than. With the superlative «quam» gives the force of as possible, as «quam» audācissimī virī, men as bold as possible «recens», gen. «recentis», adj., recent «tam», adv., so. Always with an adjective or adverb, while «ita» is generally used with a verb

«quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī, quaesītus», ask, inquire, seek (question). Cf. «petō»

«300.» The quality denoted by an adjective may exist in either a higher or a lower degree, and this is expressed by a form of inflection called comparison. The mere presence of the quality is expressed by the positive degree, its presence in a higher or lower degree by the comparative, and in the highest or lowest of all by the superlative. In English the usual way of comparing an adjective is by using the suffix -er for the comparative and -est for the superlative; as, positive high, comparative higher, superlative highest. Less frequently we use the adverbs more and most; as, positive beautiful, comparative more beautiful, superlative most beautiful.

In Latin, as in English, adjectives are compared by adding suffixes or by using adverbs.

«301.» Adjectives are compared by using suffixes as follows:

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE clārus, -a, -um clārior, clārīus clārissimus, -a, -um (bright) (brighter) (brightest) (BASE clār-) brevis, breve brevior, brevius brevissimus, -a, -um (short) (shorter) (shortest) (BASE brev-) vēlōx vēlōcior, vēlōcius vēlōcissimus, -a, -um (swift) (swifter) (swiftest) (BASE veloc-)

a. The comparative is formed from the base of the positive by adding «-ior» masc. and fem., and «-ius» neut.; the superlative by adding «-issimus, -issima, -issimum».

«302.» Less frequently adjectives are compared by using the adverbs «magis», more; «maximē», most; as, «idōneus», suitable; «magis idōneus», more suitable; «maximē idōneus», most suitable.

«303.» «Declension of the Comparative.» Adjectives of the comparative degree are declined as follows:

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. Nom. clārior clārīus clāriōrēs clāriōra Gen. clāriōris clāriōris clāriōrum clāriōrum Dat. clāriōrī clāriōrī clāriōribus clāriōribus Acc. clāriōrem clārius clāriōrēs clāriōra Abl. clāriōre clāriōre clāriōribus clāriōribus

a. Observe that the endings are those of the consonant stems of the third declension.

b. Compare «longus», long; «fortis», brave; «recēns» (base, «recent-»), recent; and decline the comparative of each.

«304.» Adjectives in «-er» form the comparative regularly, but the superlative is formed by adding «-rimus», «-a», «-um» to the nominative masculine of the positive; as,

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE ācer, ācris, ācre ācrior, ācrius ācerrimus, -a, -um (BASE acr-) pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum pulchrior, pulchrius pulcherrimus, (BASE pulchr-) -a, -um līber, lībera, līberum līberior, līberius līberrimus, -a, -um (BASE līber-)

a. In a similar manner compare «miser», «aeger», «crēber».

«305.» The comparative is often translated by quite, too, or somewhat, and the superlative by very; as, «altior», quite (too, somewhat) high; «altissimus», very high.

«306.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296.

I. 1. Quid explōrātōrēs quaerēbant? Explōrātōrēs tempus opportūnissimum itinerī quaerēbant. 2. Mediā in silvā ignīs quam crēberrimōs fēcimus, quod ferās tam audācis numquam anteā vīderāmus. 3. Antīquīs temporibus Germānī erant fortiōrēs quam Gallī. 4. Caesar erat clārior quam inimīcī[1] quī eum necāvērunt. 5. Quisque scūtum ingēns et pīlum longius gerēbat. 6. Apud barbarōs Germānī erant audācissimī et fortissimī. 7. Mēns hominum est celerior quam corpus. 8. Virī aliquārum terrārum sunt miserrimī. 9. Corpora Germānōrum erant ingentiōra quam Rōmānōrum. 10. Ācerrimī Gallōrum prīncipēs sine ūllā morā trāns flūmen quoddam equōs vēlōcissimōs trādūxērunt. 11. Aestāte diēs sunt longiōrēs quam hieme. 12. Imperātor quīdam ab explōrātōribus dē recentī adventū nāvium longārum quaesīvit.

II. 1. Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest. 2. Certain animals are swifter than the swiftest horse. 3. The Roman name was most hateful to the enemies of the commonwealth. 4. The Romans always inflicted the severest[2] punishment on faithless allies. 5. I was quite ill, and so I hastened from the city to the country. 6. Marcus had some friends dearer than Cæsar.[3] 7. Did you not seek a more recent report concerning the battle? 8. Not even after a victory so opportune did he seek the general’s friendship.

[Footnote 1: Why is this word used instead of «hostēs»?]

[Footnote 2: Use the superlative of «gravis».]

[Footnote 3: Accusative. In a comparison the noun after «quam» is in the same case as the one before it.]

N.B. Beginning at this point, the selections for reading will be found near the end of the volume. (See p. 197.)

LESSON LIV

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES THE ABLATIVE WITH COMPARATIVES WITHOUT QUAM

«alacer, alacris, alacre», eager, spirited, excited (alacrity) «celeritās, -ātis», f., speed (celerity) «clāmor, clāmōris», m., shout, clamor «lēnis, lēne», mild, gentle (lenient) «mulier, muli´eris», f., woman «multitūdō, multitūdinis», f., multitude «nēmŏ», dat. «nēminī», acc. «nēminem» (gen. «nūllīus», abl. «nūllō», from «nūllus»), no plur., m. and f., no one «nōbilis, nōbile», well known, noble «noctū», adv. (an old abl.), by night (nocturnal) «statim», adv., immediately, at once «subitō», adv., suddenly «tardus, -a, -um», slow (tardy) «cupiō, cupere, cupīvī, cupītus», desire, wish (cupidity)

«307.» The following six adjectives in «-lis» form the comparative regularly; but the superlative is formed by adding «-limus» to the base of the positive. Learn the meanings and comparison.

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE facilis, -e, easy facilior, -ius facillimus, -a, -um difficilis, -e, hard difficilior, -ius difficillimus, -a, -um similis, -e, like similior, -ius simillimus, -a, -um dissimilis, -e, unlike dissimilior, -ius dissimillimus, -a, -um gracilis, -e, slender gracilior, -ius gracillimus, -a, -um humilis, -e, low humilior, -ius humillimus, -a, -um

«308.» From the knowledge gained in the preceding lesson we should translate the sentence Nothing is brighter than the sun

«Nihil est clārius quam sōl»

But the Romans, especially in negative sentences, often expressed the comparison in this way,

«Nihil est clārius sōle»

which, literally translated, is Nothing is brighter away from the sun; that is, starting from the sun as a standard, nothing is brighter. This relation is expressed by the separative ablative «sōle». Hence the rule

«309.» RULE. «Ablative with Comparatives.» The comparative degree, if «quam» is omitted, is followed by the separative ablative.

«310.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Nēmō mīlitēs alacriōrēs Rōmānīs vīdit. 2. Statim imperātor iussit nūntiōs quam celerrimōs litterās Rōmam portāre. 3. Multa flūmina sunt lēniōra Rhēnō. 4. Apud Rōmanōs quis erat clārior Caesare? 5. Nihil pulchrius urbe Rōmā vīdī. 6. Subitō multitūdo audacissima magnō clamōre proelium ācrius commīsit. 7. Num est equus tuus tardus? Nōn vērō tardus, sed celerior aquilā. 8. Ubi Romae fuī, nēmō erat mihi amicior Sextō. 9. Quaedam mulierēs cibum mīlitibus dare cupīvērunt. 10. Rēx vetuit cīvis ex urbe noctū discēdere. 11. Ille puer est gracilior hāc muliere. 12. Explōrātor duās (two) viās, alteram facilem, alteram difficiliōrem, dēmōnstrāvit.

II. 1. What city have you seen more beautiful than Rome? 2. The Gauls were not more eager than the Germans. 3. The eagle is not slower than the horse. 4. The spirited woman did not fear to make the journey by night. 5. The mind of the multitude was quite gentle and friendly. 6. But the king’s mind was very different. 7. The king was not like (similar to) his noble father. 8. These hills are lower than the huge mountains of our territory.

[Illustration: ARMA ROMANA]

LESSON LV

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (Continued)

«aedificium, aedifi´cī», n., building, dwelling (edifice) «imperium, impe´rī», n., command, chief power; empire «mors, mortis (-ium)», f., death (mortal) «reliquus, -a, -um», remaining, rest of. As a noun, m. and n. plur., the rest (relic) «scelus, sceleris», n., crime «servitūs, -ūtis», f., slavery (servitude) «vallēs, vallis (-ium)», f., valley

«abdō, abdere, abdidī, abditus», hide «contendō, contendere, contendī, contentus», strain, struggle; hasten (contend) «occīdō, occīdere, occīdī, occīsus», cut down, kill. Cf. «necō», «interficiō» «perterreō, perterrēre, perterruī, perterritus», terrify, frighten «recipiō, recipere, recēpī, receptus», receive, recover; «sē recipere», betake one’s self, withdraw, retreat «trādō, trādere, trādidī, trāditus», give over, surrender, deliver (traitor)

«311.» Some adjectives in English have irregular comparison, as good, better, best; many, more, most. So Latin comparison presents some irregularities. Among the adjectives that are compared irregularly are

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE «bonus, -a, -um», good «melior, melius» «optimus, -a, -um» «magnus, -a, -um», great «maior, maius» «maximus, -a, -um» «malus, -a, -um», bad «peior, peius» «pessimus, -a, -um» «multus, -a, -um», much «----, plūs» «plūrimus, -a, -um» «multī, -ae, -a», many «plūrēs, plūra» «plūrimī, -ae, -a» «parvus, -a, -um», small «minor, minus» «minimus, -a, -um»

«312.» The following four adjectives have two superlatives. Unusual forms are placed in parentheses.

«exterus, -a, -um», («exterior, -ius», { «extrēmus, -a, -um» } outward outer) {(«extimus, -a, -um») } outermost, last «īnferus, -a, -um», «īnferior, -ius», { «īnfimus, -a, -um» } low lower { «īmus, -a, -um» } lowest «posterus, -a, -um», («posterior, -ius», { «postrēmus, -a, -um» } next later) {(«postumus, -a, -um») } last «superus, -a, -um», «superior, -ius» { «suprēmus, -a, -um» } above higher { «summus, -a, -um» } highest

«313.» «Plūs», more (plural more, many, several), is declined as follows:

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. Nom. ---- plūs plūrēs plūra Gen. ---- plūris plūrium plūrium Dat. ---- ---- plūribus plūribus Acc. ---- plūs plūrīs, -ēs plūra Abl. ---- plūre plūribus plūribus

a. In the singular «plūs» is used only as a neuter substantive.

«314.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Reliquī hostēs, quī ā dextrō cornū proelium commīserant, dē superiōre locō fūgērunt et sēsē in silvam maximam recēpērunt. 2. In extrēmā parte silvae castra hostium posita erant. 3. Plūrimī captīvī ab equitibus ad Caesarem ductī sunt. 4. Caesar vērō iussit eōs in servitūtem trādī. 5. Posterō diē magna multitūdō mulierum ab Rōmānīs in valle īmā reperta est. 6. Hae mulierēs maximē perterritae adventū Caesaris sēsē occīdere studēbant. 7. Eae quoque plūrīs fābulās dē exercitūs Rōmānī sceleribus audīverant. 8. Fāma illōrum mīlitum optima nōn erat. 9. In barbarōrum aedificiīs maior cōpia frūmentī reperta est. 10. Nēmō crēbrīs proeliīs contendere sine aliquō perīculō potest.

II. 1. The remaining women fled from their dwellings and hid themselves. 2. They were terrified and did not wish to be captured and given over into slavery. 3. Nothing can be worse than slavery. 4. Slavery is worse than death. 5. In the Roman empire a great many were killed because they refused to be slaves. 6. To surrender the fatherland is the worst crime.

LESSON LVI

IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (Concluded) ABLATIVE OF THE MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE

«aditus, -ūs», m., approach, access; entrance «cīvitās, cīvitātis», f., citizenship; body of citizens, state (city) «inter», prep, with acc., between, among (interstate commerce) «nam», conj., for «obses, obsidis», m. and f., hostage «paulō», adv. (abl. n. of «paulus»), by a little, somewhat

«incolō, incolere, incoluī, ----», transitive, inhabit; intransitive, dwell. Cf. «habitō», «vīvō» «relinquō, relinquere, relīquī, relictus», leave, abandon (relinquish) «statuō, statuere, statuī, statūtus», fix, decide (statute), usually with infin.

«315.» The following adjectives are irregular in the formation of the superlative and have no positive. Forms rarely used are in parentheses.

COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE «citerior», hither («citimus», hithermost) «interior», inner («intimus», inmost) «prior», former «prīmus», first «propior», nearer «proximus», next, nearest «ulterior», further «ultimus», furthest

«316.» In the sentence Galba is a head taller than Sextus, the phrase a head taller expresses the «measure of difference» in height between Galba and Sextus. The Latin form of expression would be Galba is taller than Sextus «by a head». This is clearly an ablative relation, and the construction is called the «ablative of the measure of difference».

«Galba est altior capite quam Sextus» Galba is a head taller (taller by a head) than Sextus. «Illud iter ad Italiam est multō brevius» That route to Italy is much shorter (shorter by much)

«317.» RULE. «Ablative of the Measure of Difference.» With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the measure of difference.

a. Especially common in this construction are the neuter ablatives

«eō», by this, by that «nihilō»,[1] by nothing «hōc», by this «paulō», by a little «multō», by much

[Footnote 1: «nihil» was originally «nihilum» and declined like «pīlum». There is no plural.]

«318.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297.

I. 1. Barbarī proelium committere statuērunt eō magis quod Rōmānī īnfīrmī esse vidēbantur. 2. Meum cōnsilium est multō melius quam tuum quia multō facilius est. 3. Haec via est multō lātior quam illa. 4. Barbarī erant nihilō tardiōrēs quam Rōmānī. 5. Tuus equus est paulō celerior quam meus. 6. Iī quī paulō fortiōrēs erant prohibuērunt reliquōs aditum relinquere. 7. Inter illās cīvitātēs Germānia mīlitēs habet optimōs. 8. Propior via quae per hanc vallem dūcit est inter portum et lacum. 9. Servī, quī agrōs citeriōrēs incolēbant, priōrēs dominōs relinquere nōn cupīvērunt, quod eōs amābant. 10. Ultimae Germāniae partēs numquam in fidem Rōmānōrum vēnērunt. 11. Nam trāns Rhēnum aditus erat multō difficilior exercituī Rōmānō.

II. 1. Another way much more difficult (more difficult by much) was left through hither Gaul. 2. In ancient times no state was stronger than the Roman empire. 3. The states of further Gaul did not wish to give hostages to Cæsar. 4. Slavery is no better (better by nothing) than death. 5. The best citizens are not loved by the worst. 6. The active enemy immediately withdrew into the nearest forest, for they were terrified by Cæsar’s recent victories.

LESSON LVII

FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

«aequus, -a, -um», even, level; equal «cohors, cohortis (-ium)», f., cohort, a tenth part of a legion, about 360 men «currō, currere, cucurrī, cursus», run (course) «difficultās, -ātis», f., difficulty «fossa, -ae», f., ditch (fosse) «gēns, gentis (-ium)», f., race, tribe, nation (Gentile) «negōtium, negōtī», n., business, affair, matter (negotiate) «regiō, -ōnis», f., region, district «rūmor, rūmōris», m., rumor, report. Cf. fāma «simul atque», conj., as soon as

«suscipiō, suscipere, suscēpī, susceptus», undertake «trahō, trahere, trāxī, trāctus», drag, draw (ex-tract) «valeō, valēre, valuī, valitūrus», be strong; plūrimum valēre, to be most powerful, have great influence (value). Cf. validus

«319.» Adverbs are generally derived from adjectives, as in English (e.g. adj. sweet, adv. sweetly). Like adjectives, they can be compared; but they have no declension.

«320.» Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions are formed and compared as follows:

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE Adj. cārus, dear cārior cārissimus Adv. cārē, dearly cārius cārissimē

Adj. pulcher, beautiful pulchrior pulcherrimus Adv. pulchrē, beautifully pulchrius pulcherrimē

Adj. līber, free līberior līberrimus Adv. līberē, freely līberius līberrimē

a. The positive of the adverb is formed by adding «-ē» to the base of the positive of the adjective. The superlative of the adverb is formed from the superlative of the adjective in the same way.

b. The comparative of any adverb is the neuter accusative singular of the comparative of the adjective.

«321.» Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension are formed like those described above in the comparative and superlative. The positive is usually formed by adding «-iter» to the base of adjectives of three endings or of two endings, and «-ter» to the base of those of one ending;[1] as,

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE Adj. fortis, brave fortior fortissimus Adv. fortiter, bravely fortius fortissimē

Adj. audāx, bold audācior audācissimus Adv. audācter, boldly audācius audācissimē

[Footnote 1: This is a good working rule, though there are some exceptions to it.]

«322.» «Case Forms as Adverbs.» As we learned above, the neuter accusative of comparatives is used adverbially. So in the positive or superlative some adjectives, instead of following the usual formation, use the accusative or the ablative singular neuter adverbially; as,

Adj. facilis, easy prīmus, first Adv. facile (acc.), easily prīmum (acc.), first prīmō (abl.), at first Adj. multus, many plūrimus, most Adv. multum (acc.), much plūrimum (acc.), most multō (abl.), by much

«323.» Learn the following irregular comparisons:

bene, well melius, better optimē, best diū, long (time) diūtius, longer diūtissimē, longest magnopere, greatly magis, more maximē, most parum, little minus, less minimē, least prope, nearly, near propius, nearer proximē, nearest saepe, often saepius, oftener saepissimē, oftenest

«324.» Form adverbs from the following adjectives, using the regular rules, and compare them: «laetus», «superbus», «molestus», «amīcus», «ācer», «brevis», «gravis», «recēns.»

«325.» RULE. «Adverbs.» Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

«326.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Nūlla rēs melius gesta est quam proelium illud[2] ubi Marius multō minōre exercitū multō maiōrēs cōpiās Germānōrum in fugam dedit. 2. Audācter in Rōmānōrum cohortīs hostēs impetūs fēcērunt 3. Marius autem omnēs hōs fortissimē sustinuit. 4. Barbarī nihilō fortiōrēs erant quam Rōmānī. 5. Prīmō barbarī esse superiōrēs vidēbantur, tum Rōmānī ācrius contendērunt. 6. Dēnique, ubi iam diūtissimē paene aequō proeliō pugnātum est, barbarī fugam petiērunt. 7. Quaedam Germānōrum gentēs, simul atque rūmōrem illīus calamitātis audīvērunt, sēsē in ultimīs regiōnibus fīnium suōrum abdidērunt. 8. Rōmānī saepius quam hostēs vīcērunt, quod meliōra arma habēbant. 9. Inter omnīs gentīs Rōmānī plūrimum valēbant. 10. Hae cohortēs simul atque in aequiōrem regiōnem sē recēpērunt, castra sine ūllā difficultāte posuērunt.

II. 1. Some nations are easily overcome by their enemies. 2. Germany is much larger than Gaul. 3. Were not the Romans the most powerful among the tribes of Italy? 4. On account of (his) wounds the soldier dragged his body from the ditch with the greatest difficulty. 5. He was able neither to run nor to fight. 6. Who saved him? A certain horseman boldly undertook the matter. 7. The rumors concerning the soldier’s death were not true.

[Footnote 2: «ille» standing after its noun means that well-known, that famous.]

LESSON LVIII

NUMERALS · THE PARTITIVE GENITIVE

«commeātus, -ūs», m.. provisions «lātitūdō, -inis», f., width (latitude) «longitūdō, -inis», f., length (longitude) «magnitūdō, -inis», f., size, magnitude «mercātor, mercātōris», m., trader, merchant «mūnītiō, -ōnis», f., fortification (munition) «spatium, spatī», n., room, space, distance; time

«cognōscō, cognōscere, cognōvī, cognitus», learn; in the perfect tenses, know (re-cognize) «cōgō, cōgere, coēgī, coāctus», collect; compel (cogent) «dēfendō, dēfendere, dēfendī, dēfēnsus», defend «incendō, incendere, incendī, incēnsus», set fire to, burn (incendiary). Cf. «cremō» «obtineō, obtinēre, obtinuī, obtentus», possess, occupy, hold (obtain) «perveniō, pervenīre, pervēnī, perventus», come through, arrive

«327.» The Latin numeral adjectives may be classified as follows:

1. «Cardinal Numerals», answering the question how many? as, «ūnus», one; «duo», two; etc.

2. «Ordinal Numerals», derived in most cases from the cardinals and answering the question in what order? as, «prīmus», first; «secundus», second; etc.

3. «Distributive Numerals», answering the question how many at a time? as, «singulī», one at a time.

«328.» «The Cardinal Numerals.» The first twenty of the cardinals are as follows:

1, «ūnus» 6, «sex» 11, «ūndecim» 16, «sēdecim» 2, «duo» 7, «septem» 12, «duodecim» 17, «septendecim» 3, «trēs» 8, «octō» 13, «tredecim» 18, «duodēvīgintī» 4, «quattuor» 9, «novem» 14, «quattuordecim» 19, «ūndēvīgintī» 5, «quīnque» 10, «decem» 15, «quīndecim» 20, «vīgintī»

a. Learn also «centum» = 100, «ducentī» = 200, «mīlle» = 1000.

«329.» «Declension of the Cardinals.» Of the cardinals only «ūnus», «duo», «trēs», the hundreds above one hundred, and «mīlle» used as a noun, are declinable.

a. «ūnus» is one of the nine irregular adjectives, and is declined like «nūllus» (cf. §§109, 470). The plural of «ūnus» is used to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning, as, «ūna castra», one camp; and with other nouns in the sense of only, as, «Gallī ūnī», only the Gauls.

b. Learn the declension of «duo», two; «trēs», three; and «mīlle», a thousand. (§479.)

c. The hundreds above one hundred are declined like the plural of «bonus»; as,

ducentī, -ae, -a ducentōrum, -ārum, -ōrum etc. etc. etc.

«330.» We have already become familiar with sentences like the following:

«Omnium avium aquila est vēlōcissima» Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest «Hoc ōrāculum erat omnium clārissimum» This oracle was the most famous of all

In such sentences the genitive denotes the whole, and the word it modifies denotes a part of that whole. Such a genitive, denoting the whole of which a part is taken, is called a «partitive genitive».

«331.» RULE. «Partitive Genitive.» Words denoting a part are often used with the genitive of the whole, known as the «partitive genitive».

a. Words denoting a part are especially pronouns, numerals, and other adjectives. But cardinal numbers excepting «mīlle» regularly take the ablative with «ex» or «dē» instead of the partitive genitive.

b. «Mīlle», a thousand, in the singular is usually an indeclinable adjective (as, «mīlle mīlitēs», a thousand soldiers), but in the plural it is a declinable noun and takes the partitive genitive (as, «decem mīlia mīlitum», ten thousand soldiers).

EXAMPLES:

«Fortissimī hōrum sunt Germānī» The bravest of these are the Germans «Decem mīlia hostium interfecta sunt» Ten thousand (lit. thousands) of the enemy were slain «Ūna ex captīvīs erat soror rēgis» One of the captives was the king’s sister

«332.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Caesar maximam partem aedificiōrum incendit. 2. Magna pars mūnītiōnis aquā flūminis dēlēta est. 3. Gallī huius regiōnis quīnque mīlia hominum coēgerant. 4. Duo ex meīs frātribus eundem rūmōrem audīvērunt. 5. Quis Rōmānōrum erat clarior Caesare? 6. Quīnque cohortēs ex illā legiōne castra quam fortissimē dēfendēbant. 7. Hic locus aberat aequō spatiō[1] ab castrīs Caesaris et castrīs Germānōrum. 8. Caesar simul atque pervēnit, plūs commeātūs ab sociīs postulāvit. 9. Nōnne mercātōrēs magnitūdinem īnsulae cognōverant? Longitūdinem sed nōn lātitūdinem cognōverant. 10. Paucī hostium obtinēbant collem quem explōrātōrēs nostrī vīdērunt.

II. 1. I have two brothers, and one of them lives at Rome. 2. Cæsar stormed that very town with three legions. 3. In one hour he destroyed a great part of the fortification. 4. When the enemy could no longer[2] defend the gates, they retreated to a hill which was not far distant.[3] 5. There three thousand of them bravely resisted the Romans.[4]

[Footnote 1: Ablative of the measure of difference.]

[Footnote 2: Not «longius». Why?]

[Footnote 3: Latin, was distant by a small space.]

[Footnote 4: Not the accusative.]

LESSON LIX

NUMERALS (Continued) · THE ACCUSATIVE OF EXTENT

«agmen, agminis», n., line of march, column; «prīmum agmen», the van; «novissimum agmen», the rear «atque», «ac», conj., and; «atque» is used before vowels and consonants, «ac» before consonants only. Cf. «et» and «-que» «concilium, conci´lī», n., council, assembly «Helvētiī, -ōrum», m., the Helvetii, a Gallic tribe «passus, passūs», m., a pace, five Roman feet; «mīlle passuum», a thousand (of) paces, a Roman mile «quā dē causā», for this reason, for what reason «vāllum, -ī», n., earth-works, rampart

«cadō, cadere, cecidī, cāsūrus», fall (decadence) «dēdō, dēdere, dēdidī, dēditus», surrender, give up; with a reflexive pronoun, surrender one’s self, submit, with the dative of the indirect object «premō, premere, pressī, pressus», press hard, harass «vexō, vexāre, vexāvī, vexātus», annoy, ravage (vex)

«333.» Learn the first twenty of the ordinal numerals (§478). The ordinals are all declined like «bonus».

«334.» The distributive numerals are declined like the plural of «bonus». The first three are

«singulī, -ae, -a», one each, one by one «bīnī, -ae, -a», two each, two by two «ternī, -ae, -a», three each, three by three

«335.» We have learned that, besides its use as object, the accusative is used to express space relations not covered by the ablative. We have had such expressions as «per plūrimōs annōs», for a great many years; «per tōtum diem», for a whole day. Here the space relation is one of extent of time. We could also say «per decem pedēs», for ten feet, where the space relation is one of extent of space. While this is correct Latin, the usual form is to use the accusative with no preposition, as,

«Vir tōtum diem cucurrit», the man ran for a whole day «Caesar mūrum decem pedēs mōvit», Cæsar moved the wall ten feet

«336.» RULE. «Accusative of Extent.» Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the accusative.

a. This accusative answers the questions how long? how far?

b. Distinguish carefully between the accusative of time how long and the ablative of time when, or within which.

Select the accusatives of time and space and the ablatives of time in the following:

When did the general arrive? He arrived at two o’clock. How long had he been marching? For four days. How far did he march? He marched sixty-five miles. Where has he pitched his camp? Three miles from the river, and he will remain there several days. The wall around the camp is ten feet high. When did the war begin? In the first year after the king’s death.

«337.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 298.

I. Cæsar in Gaul. Caesar bellum in Gallia septem annōs gessit. Prīmō annō Helvētiōs vīcit, et eōdem annō multae Germanōrum gentēs eī sēsē dēdidērunt. Multōs iam annōs Germānī Gallōs vexabant[1] et ducēs Germānī cōpiās suās trāns Rhēnum saepe trādūcēbant.[1] Nōn singulī veniēbant, sed multa milia hominum in Galliam contendēbant. Quā dē causā prīncipēs Galliae concilium convocāvērunt atque statuērunt legates ad Caesarem mittere. Caesar, simul atque hunc rūmōrem audīvit, cōpiās suās sine morā coēgit. Primā lūce fortiter cum Germanīs proelium commīsit. Tōtum diem ācriter pugnātum est. Caesar ipse ā dextrō cornū acicm dūxit. Magna pars exercitūs Germānī cecidit. Post magnam caedem paucī multa milia passuum ad flūmen fūgērunt.

II. 1. Cæsar pitched camp two miles from the river. 2. He fortified the camp with a ditch fifteen feet wide and a rampart nine feet high. 3. The camp of the enemy was a great way off (was distant by a great space). 4. On the next day he hastened ten miles in three hours. 5. Suddenly the enemy with all their forces made an attack upon («in» with acc.) the rear. 6. For two hours the Romans were hard pressed by the barbarians. 7. In three hours the barbarians were fleeing.

[Footnote 1: Translate as if pluperfect.]

LESSON LX

DEPONENT VERBS

«aut», conj., or; «aut ... aut», either ... or «causā», abl. of «causa», for the sake of, because of. Always stands after the gen. which modifies it «ferē», adv., nearly, almost «opīniō, -ōnis», f., opinion, supposition, expectation «rēs frūmentāria, reī frūmentāriae», f. (lit. the grain affair), grain supply «timor, -ōris», m., fear. Cf. «timeō» «undique», adv., from all sides

«cōnor, cōnārī, cōnātus sum», attempt, try «ēgredior, ēgredī, ēgressus sum», move out, disembark; «prōgredior», move forward, advance (egress, progress) «moror, morārī, morātus sum», delay «orior, orirī, ortus sum», arise, spring; begin; be born (from) (origin) «proficīscor, proficīscī, profectus sum», set out «revertor, revertī, reversus sum», return (revert). The forms of this verb are usually active, and not deponent, in the perfect system. Perf. act., «revertī» «sequor, sequī, secūtus sum», follow (sequence). Note the following compounds of «sequor» and the force of the different prefixes: «cōnsequor» (follow with), overtake; «īnsequor» (follow against), pursue; «subsequor» (follow under), follow close after

«338.» A number of verbs are passive in form but active in meaning; as, «hortor», I encourage; «vereor», I fear. Such verbs are called «deponent» because they have laid aside («dē-pōnere», to lay aside) the active forms.

a. Besides having all the forms of the passive, deponent verbs have also the future active infinitive and a few other active forms which will be noted later. (Sec§§375, 403.b.)

«339.» The principal parts of deponents are of course passive in form, as,

Conj. I «hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum», encourage Conj. II «vereor, verērī, veritus sum», fear Conj. III (a) «sequor, sequī, secūtus sum», follow (b) «patior, patī, passus sum», suffer, allow Conj. IV «partior, partīrī, partītus sum», share, divide

Learn the synopses of these verbs. (See §493.) «Patior» is conjugated like the passive of «capiō» (§492).

«340.» PREPOSITIONS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE

The prepositions with the accusative that occur most frequently are

«ante», before «apud», among «circum», around «contrā», against, contrary to «extrā», outside of «in», into, in, against, upon «inter», between, among «intrā», within «ob», on account of («quam ob rem», wherefore, therefore) «per», through, by means of «post», after, behind «propter», on account of, because of «trāns», across, over

a. Most of these you have had before. Review the old ones and learn the new ones. Review the list of prepositions governing the ablative, §209.

«341.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Trēs ex lēgātīs, contrā Caesaris opīniōnem, iter facere per hostium fīnīs verēbantur. 2. Quis eōs hortātus est? Imperātor eōs hortātus est et iīs persuādēre cōnātus est, sed nōn potuit. 3. Quid lēgātōs perterruit? Aut timor hostium, quī undique premēbant, aut longitūdō viae eōs perterruit. 4. Tamen omnēs ferē Caesarem multō magis quam hostīs veritī sunt. 5. Fortissimae gentēs Galliae ex Germānīs oriēbantur. 6. Quam ob rem tam fortēs erant? Quia nec vīnum nec alia quae virtūtem dēlent ad sē portārī patiēbantur. 7. Caesar ex mercātōribus dē īnsulā Britanniā quaesīvit, sed nihil cognōscere potuit. 8. Itaque ipse statuit hanc terram petere, et mediā ferē aestāte cum multīs nāvibus longīs profectus est. 9. Magnā celeritāte iter confēcit et in opportūnissimō locō ēgressus est. 10. Barbarī summīs vīribus eum ab īnsulā prohibēre cōnātī sunt. 11. Ille autem barbarōs multa mīlia passuum īnsecūtus est; tamen sine equitātū eōs cōnsequī nōn potuit.

II. 1. Contrary to our expectation, the enemy fled and the cavalry followed close after them. 2. From all parts of the multitude the shouts arose of those who were being wounded. 3. Cæsar did not allow the cavalry to pursue too far.[1] 4. The cavalry set out at the first hour and was returning[2] to camp at the fourth hour. 5. Around the Roman camp was a rampart twelve feet high. 6. Cæsar will delay three days because of the grain supply. 7. Nearly all the lieutenants feared the enemy and attempted to delay the march.

[Footnote 1: Comparative of «longē».]

[Footnote 2: Will this be a deponent or an active form?]

«Seventh Review, Lessons LIII-LX, §§524-526»

PART III

CONSTRUCTIONS

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

The preceding part of this book has been concerned chiefly with forms and vocabulary. There remain still to be learned the forms of the Subjunctive Mood, the Participles, and the Gerund of the regular verb, and the conjugation of the commoner irregular verbs. These will be taken up in connection with the study of constructions, which will be the chief subject of our future work. The special vocabularies of the preceding lessons contain, exclusive of proper names, about six hundred words. As these are among the commonest words in the language, they must be mastered. They properly form the basis of the study of words, and will be reviewed and used with but few additions in the remaining lessons.

For practice in reading and to illustrate the constructions presented, a continued story has been prepared and may be begun at this point (see p. 204). It has been divided into chapters of convenient length to accompany progress through the lessons, but may be read with equal profit after the lessons are finished. The story gives an account of the life and adventures of Publius Cornelius Lentulus, a Roman boy, who fought in Cæsar’s campaigns and shared in his triumph. The colored plates illustrating the story are faithful representations of ancient life and are deserving of careful study.

LESSON LXI

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

«342.» In addition to the indicative, imperative, and infinitive moods, which you have learned, Latin has a fourth mood called the subjunctive. The tenses of the subjunctive are

PRESENT } IMPERFECT } ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PERFECT } PLUPERFECT }

«343.» The tenses of the subjunctive have the same time values as the corresponding tenses of the indicative, and, in addition, each of them may refer to future time. No meanings of the tenses will be given in the paradigms, as the translation varies with the construction used.

«344.» The present subjunctive is inflected as follows:

CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV ACTIVE VOICE SINGULAR 1. a´mem mo´neam re´gam ca´piam au´diam 2. a´mēs mo´neās re´gās ca´piās au´diās 3. a´met mo´neat re´gat ca´piat au´diat

PLURAL 1. amē´mus moneā´mus regā´mus capiā´mus audiā´mus 2. amē´tis moneā´tis regā´tis capiā´tis audiā´tis 3. a´ment mo´neant re´gant ca´piant au´diant

PASSIVE VOICE SINGULAR 1. a´mer mo´near re´gar ca´piar au´diar 2. amē´ris moneā´ris regā´ris capiā´ris audiā´ris (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) 3. amē´tur moneā´tur regā´tur capiā´tur audiā´tur

PLURAL 1. amē´mur moneā´mur regā´mur capiā´mur audiā´mur 2. amē´minī moneā´minī regā´minī capiā´minī audiā´minī 3. amen´tur monean´tur regan´tur capian´tur audian´tur

a. The present subjunctive is formed from the present stem.

b. The mood sign of the present subjunctive is «-ē-» in the first conjugation and «-ā-» in the others. It is shortened in the usual places (cf. §12), and takes the place of the final vowel of the stem in the first and third conjugations, but not in the second and fourth.

c. The personal endings are the same as in the indicative.

d. In a similar way inflect the present subjunctive of «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō».

«345.» The present subjunctive of the irregular verb «sum» is inflected as follows:

{ 1. sim { 1. sīmus SING. { 2. sīs PLURAL { 2. sītis { 3. sit { 3. sint

«346.» «The Indicative and Subjunctive Compared.»

1. The two most important of the finite moods are the indicative and the subjunctive. The indicative deals with facts either real or assumed. If, then, we wish to assert something as a fact or to inquire after a fact, we use the indicative.

2. On the other hand, if we wish to express a desire or wish, a purpose, a possibility, an expectation, or some such notion, we must use the subjunctive. The following sentences illustrate the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive ideas.

INDICATIVE IDEAS SUBJUNCTIVE IDEAS

1. He is brave 1. May he be brave «Fortis est» «Fortis sit» (idea of wishing) 2. We set out at once 2. Let us set out at once «Statim proficīscimur» «Statim proficīscāmur» (idea of willing) 3. You hear him every day 3. You can hear him every day «Cotīdiē eum audīs» «Cotīdiē eum audiās» (idea of possibility) 4. He remained until the ship 4. He waited until the ship arrived should arrive «Mānsit dum nāvis pervēnit» «Exspectāvit dum nāvis pervenīret»[1] (idea of expectation) 5. Cæsar sends men who find the 5. Cæsar sends men bridge who are to find (or to find) the bridge «Caesar mittit hominēs quī» «Caesar hominēs mittit quī» «pontem reperiunt» «pontem reperiant» (idea of purpose)

[Footnote 1: «pervenīret», imperfect subjunctive.]

NOTE. From the sentences above we observe that the subjunctive may be used in either independent or dependent clauses; but it is far more common in the latter than in the former.

«347.» EXERCISE

Which verbs in the following paragraph would be in the indicative and which in the subjunctive in a Latin translation?

There have been times in the history of our country when you might be proud of being an American citizen. Do you remember the day when Dewey sailed into Manila Bay to capture or destroy the enemy’s fleet? You might have seen the admiral standing on the bridge calmly giving his orders. He did not even wait until the mines should be removed from the harbor’s mouth, but sailed in at once. Let us not despair of our country while such valor exists, and may the future add new glories to the past.

LESSON LXII

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE

«348.» Observe the sentence

«Caesar hominēs mittit quī pontem reperiant», Cæsar sends men to find the bridge

The verb «reperiant» in the dependent clause is in the subjunctive because it tells us what Cæsar wants the men to do; in other words, it expresses his will and the purpose in his mind. Such a use of the subjunctive is called the subjunctive of purpose.

«349.» RULE. «Subjunctive of Purpose.» The subjunctive is used in a dependent clause to express the purpose of the action in the principal clause.

«350.» A clause of purpose is introduced as follows:

I. If something is wanted, by

«quī», the relative pronoun (as above) «ut», conj., in order that, that «quō» (abl. of «quī», by which), in order that, that, used when the purpose clause contains a comparative. The ablative «quō» expresses the measure of difference. (Cf. §317.)

II. If something is not wanted, by

«nē», conj., in order that not, that not, lest

«351.» EXAMPLES

1. «Caesar cōpiās cōgit quibus hostīs īnsequātur» Cæsar collects troops with which to pursue the foe

2. «Pācem petunt ut domum revertantur» They ask for peace in order that they may return home

3. «Pontem faciunt quō facilius oppidum capiant» They build a bridge that they may take the town more easily (lit. by which the more easily)

4. «Fugiunt nē vulnerentur» They flee that they may not (or lest they) be wounded

«352.» «Expression of Purpose in English.» In English, purpose clauses are sometimes introduced by that or in order that, but much more frequently purpose is expressed in English by the infinitive, as We eat to live, She stoops to conquer. In Latin prose, on the other hand, «purpose is never expressed by the infinitive». Be on your guard and do not let the English idiom betray you into this error.

«353.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Veniunt ut { dūcant, mittant, videant, audiant, { dūcantur, mittantur, videantur, audiantur. 2. Fugimus nē { capiāmur, trādāmur, videāmus, { necēmur, rapiāmur, resistāmus. 3. Mittit nūntiōs quī { dicant, audiant, veniant, { nārrent, audiantur, in conciliō sedeant. 4. Castra mūniunt { sēsē dēfendant, impetum sustineant, quō facilius { hostīs vincant, salūtem petant.

II. 1. The Helvetii send ambassadors to seek[1] peace. 2. They are setting out at daybreak in order that they may make a longer march before night. 3. They will hide the women in the forest (acc. with «in») that they may not be captured. 4. The Gauls wage many wars to free[1] their fatherland from slavery. 5. They will resist the Romans[2] bravely lest they be destroyed.

[Footnote 1: Not infinitive.]

[Footnote 2: Not accusative.]

LESSON LXIII

INFLECTION OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

«354.» The imperfect subjunctive may be formed by adding the personal endings to the present active infinitive.

CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV ACTIVE 1. amā´rem monē´rem re´gerem ca´perem audī´rem 2. amā´rēs monē´rēs re´gerēs ca´perēs audī´rēs 3. amā´ret monē´ret re´geret ca´peret audī´ret

1. amārē´mus monērē´mus regerē´mus caperē´mus audīrē´mus 2. amārē´tis monērē´tis regerē´tis caperē´tis audīrē´tis 3. amā´rent monē´rent re´gerent ca´perent audī´rent

PASSIVE 1. amā´rer monē´rer re´gerer ca´perer audī´rer 2. amārē´ris monērē´ris regerē´ris caperē´ris audīrē´ris (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) 3. amārē´tur monērē´tur regerē´tur caperē´tur audīrē´tur

1. amārē´mur monērē´mur regerē´mur caperē´mur audīrē´mur 2. amārē´minī monērē´minī regerē´minī caperē´minī audīrē´minī 3. amāren´tur monēren´tur regeren´tur caperen´tur audīren´tur

a. In a similar way inflect the imperfect subjunctive, active and passive, of «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō».

«355.» The imperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb «sum» is inflected as follows:

{ 1. es´sem { 1. essē´mus SING. { 2. es´sēs PLURAL { 2. essē´tis { 3. es´set { 3. es´sent

«356.» The three great distinctions of time are present, past, and future. All tenses referring to present or future time are called «primary tenses», and those referring to past time are called «secondary tenses». Now it is a very common law of language that in a complex sentence the tense in the dependent clause should be of the same kind as the tense in the principal clause. In the sentence He «says» that he «is» coming, the principal verb, says, is present, that is, is in a primary tense; and is coming, in the dependent clause, is naturally also primary. If I change he says to he said,--in other words, if I make the principal verb secondary in character,--I feel it natural to change the verb in the dependent clause also, and I say, He «said» that he «was» coming. This following of a tense by another of the same kind is called tense sequence, from sequī, “to follow.”

In Latin the law of tense sequence is obeyed with considerable regularity, especially when an indicative in the principal clause is followed by a subjunctive in the dependent clause. Then a primary tense of the indicative is followed by a primary tense of the subjunctive, and a secondary tense of the indicative is followed by a secondary tense of the subjunctive. Learn the following table:

«357.» TABLE FOR SEQUENCE OF TENSES

+-----+-------------------+-------------------------------------------+ | | PRINCIPAL VERB | DEPENDENT VERBS IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE | | P | IN THE +---------------------+---------------------+ | R | INDICATIVE | Incomplete or | Completed Action | | I | | Continuing Action | | | M +-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ | A | Present | | | | R | Future | Present | Perfect | | T | Future perfect | | | +-----+-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ | S D | | | | | E A | Imperfect | | | | C R | Perfect | Imperfect | Pluperfect | | O Y | Pluperfect | | | | N- | | | | +-----+-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

«358.» RULE. «Sequence of Tenses.» Primary tenses are followed by primary tenses and secondary by secondary.

«359.» EXAMPLES

I. Primary tenses in principal and dependent clauses:

«Mittit» } «Mittet» } «hominēs ut agrōs vāstent» «Mīserit» }

{ sends } { that they may } He { will send } men { in order to } { will have sent } { to lay waste the fields }

II. Secondary tenses in principal and dependent clauses:

«Mittēbat»} «Mīsit» } «hominēs ut agrōs vāstārent» «Mīserat» }

{ was sending } { that they might } He { sent or has sent } men { in order to } { had sent } { to lay waste the fields }

«360.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Vēnerant ut {dūcerent, mitterent, vidērent, audīrent, {dūcerentur, mitterentur, vidērentur, audirentur

2. Fugiēbat nē {caperētur, trāderētur, vidērētur, {necārētur, raperētur, resisteret.

3. Misit nūntiōs quī {dīcerent, audīrent, venīrent {nārrārent, audīrentur, in conciliō sedērent.

4. Castra mūnīvērunt {sēsē dēfenderent, impetum sustinērent, quō facilius {hostīs vincerent, salūtem peterent.

II. 1. Cæsar encouraged the soldiers in order that they might fight more bravely. 2. The Helvetii left their homes to wage war. 3. The scouts set out at once lest they should be captured by the Germans. 4. Cæsar inflicted punishment on them in order that the others might be more terrified. 5. He sent messengers to Rome to announce the victory.

LESSON LXIV

THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE

«361.» The perfect and the pluperfect subjunctive active are inflected as follows:

CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE SINGULAR 1. amā´verim monu´erim rē´xerim cē´perim audī´verim 2. amā´veris monu´eris rē´xeris cē´peris audī´veris 3. amā´verit monu´erit rē´xerit cē´perit audī´verit

PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE SINGULAR 1. amāvis´sem monuis´sem rēxis´sem cēpis´sem audīvis´sem 2. amāvis´sēs monuis´sēs rēxis´sēs cēpis´sēs audīvis´sēs 3. amāvis´set monuis´set rēxis´set cēpis´set audīvis´set

PLURAL 1. amāvissē´mus monuissē´mus rēxissē´mus cēpissē´mus audīvissē´mus 2. amāvissē´tis monuissē´tis rēxissē´tis cēpissē´tis audīvissē´tis 3. amāvis´sent monuis´sent rēxis´sent cēpis´sent audīvis´sent

a. Observe that these two tenses, like the corresponding ones in the indicative, are formed from the perfect stem.

b. Observe that the perfect subjunctive active is like the future perfect indicative active, excepting that the first person singular ends in «-m» and not in «-ō».

c. Observe that the pluperfect subjunctive active may be formed by adding «-issem, -issēs», etc. to the perfect stem.

d. In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive active of «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō».

«362.» The passive of the perfect subjunctive is formed by combining the perfect passive participle with «sim», the present subjunctive of «sum.»

CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE SINGULAR 1. amā´tus sim mo´nitus sim rēc´tus sim cap´tus sim audī´tus sim 2. amā´tus sīs mo´nitus sīs rēc´tus sīs cap´tus sīs audī´tus sīs 3. amā´tus sit mo´nitus sit rēc´tus sit cap´tus sit audī´tus sit

PLURAL 1. amā´tī sīmus mo´nitī s. rēc´tī s. cap´tī s. audī´tī s. 2. amā´tī sītis mo´nitī s. rēc´tī s. cap´tī s. audī´tī s. 3. amā´tī sint mo´nitī sint rēc´tī sint cap´tī sint audī´tī sint

«363.» The passive of the pluperfect subjunctive is formed by combining the perfect passive participle with «essem», the imperfect subjunctive of «sum».

CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE SINGULAR 1. amātus essem monitus essem rēctus essem captus e. audītus e. 2. amātus essēs monitus essēs rēctus essēs captus e. audītus e. 3. amātus esset monitus esset rēctus esset captus e. audītus e.

PLURAL 1. amātī essēmus monitī essēmus rēctī essēmus captī e. audītī e. 2. amātī essētis monitī essētis rēctī essētis captī e. audītī e. 3. amātī essent monitī essent rēctī essent captī e. audītī e.

a. In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive passive of «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō.»

«364.» The perfect and pluperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb «sum» are inflected as follows:

PERFECT PLUPERFECT fu´erim fue´rimus fuis´sem fuissē´mus fu´eris fue´ritis fuis´sēs fuissē´tis fu´erit fu´erint fuis´set fuis´sent

«365.» A substantive clause is a clause used like a noun, as,

That the men are afraid is clear enough (clause as subject) He ordered them to call on him (clause as object)

We have already had many instances of infinitive clauses used in this way (cf. §213), and have noted the similarity between Latin and English usage in this respect. But the Latin often uses the subjunctive in substantive clauses, and this marks an important difference between the two languages.

«366.» RULE. «Substantive Clauses of Purpose.» A substantive clause of purpose with the subjunctive is used as the object of verbs of «commanding», «urging», «asking», «persuading», or «advising», where in English we should usually have the infinitive.

1. The general ordered the soldiers to run «Imperātor mīlitibus imperāvit ut currerent» 2. He urged them to resist bravely «Hortātus est ut fortiter resisterent» 3. He asked them to give the children food «Petīvit ut līberīs cibum darent» 4. He will persuade us not to set out «Nōbīs persuādēbit nē proficīscāmur» 5. He advises us to remain at home «Monet ut domī maneāmus»

a. The object clauses following these verbs all express the purpose or will of the principal subject that something be done or not done. (Cf. §348.)

«367.» The following verbs are used with object clauses of purpose. Learn the list and the principal parts of the new ones.

«hortor», urge «imperō», order (with the dative of the person ordered and a subjunctive clause of the thing ordered done) «moneō», advise «petō», «quaerō», «rogō», ask, seek «persuādeō», persuade (with the same construction as imperō) «postulō», demand, require «suādeō», advise (cf. «persuādeō»)

N.B. Remember that «iubeō», order, takes the infinitive as in English. (Cf. §213.1.) Compare the sentences

«Iubeō eum venīre», I order him to come «Imperō eī ut veniat», I give orders to him that he is to come

We ordinarily translate both of these sentences like the first, but the difference in meaning between iubeō and imperō in the Latin requires the infinitive in the one case and the subjunctive in the other.

«368.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Petit atque hortātur ut ipse dīcat. 2. Caesar Helvētiīs imperāvit nē per prōvinciam iter facerent. 3. Caesar nōn iussit Helvētiōs per prōvinciam iter facere. 4. Ille cīvibus persuāsit ut dē fīnibus suīs discēderent. 5. Caesar prīncipēs monēbit nē proelium committant. 6. Postulāvit nē cum Helvētiīs aut cum eōrum sociīs bellum gererent. 7. Ab iīs quaesīvī nē proficīscerentur. 8. Iīs persuādēre nōn potuī ut domī manērent.

II. 1. Who ordered Cæsar to make the march? (Write this sentence both with «imperō» and with «iubeō».) 2. The faithless scouts persuaded him to set out at daybreak. 3. They will ask him not to inflict punishment. 4. He demanded that they come to the camp. 5. He advised them to tell everything («omnia»).

NOTE. Do not forget that the English infinitive expressing purpose must be rendered by a Latin subjunctive. Review §352.

[Illustration: LEGIO ITER FACIT]

LESSON LXV

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF POSSUM · VERBS OF FEARING

«369.» Learn the subjunctive of «possum» (§495), and note especially the position of the accent.

«370.» «Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing.» We have learned that what we want done or not done is expressed in Latin by a subjunctive clause of purpose. In this class belong also clauses after verbs of fearing, for we fear either that something will happen or that it will not, and we either want it to happen or we do not. If we want a thing to happen and fear that it will not, the purpose clause is introduced by «ut». If we do not want it to happen and fear that it will, «nē» is used. Owing to a difference between the English and Latin idiom we translate «ut» after a verb of fearing by that not, and «nē» by that or lest.

«371.» EXAMPLES

«timeō» } { «veniat» «timēbō» } «ut» { «timuerō» } { «vēnerit»

I fear, shall fear, shall have feared, that he will not come, has not come

«timēbam» } { «venīret» «timuī» } «ut» { «timueram» } { «vēnisset»

I was fearing, feared, had feared, that he would not come, had not come

The same examples with «nē» instead of «ut» would be translated I fear that or lest he will come, has come, etc.

«372.» RULE. «Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing.» Verbs of fearing are followed by a substantive clause of purpose introduced by «ut» («that not») or «nē» («that» or «lest»).

«373.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Caesar verēbātur ut supplicium captīvōrum Gallīs placēret. 2. Rōmānī ipsī magnopere verēbantur nē Helvētiī iter per prōvinciam facerent. 3. Timēbant ut satis reī frūmentāriae mittī posset. 4. Vereor ut hostium impetum sustinēre possim. 5. Timuit nē impedīmenta ab hostibus capta essent. 6. Caesar numquam timuit nē legiōnēs vincerentur. 7. Legiōnēs pugnāre nōn timuērunt.[1]

II. 1. We fear that they are not coming. 2. We fear lest they are coming. 3. We feared that they had come. 4. We feared that they had not come. 5. They feared greatly that the camp could not be defended. 6. Almost all feared[1] to leave the camp.

[Footnote 1: Distinguish between what one is afraid to do (complementary infinitive as here) and what one is afraid will take place or has taken place (substantive clause with the subjunctive).]

LESSON LXVI

THE PARTICIPLES

«374.» The Latin verb has the following Participles:[1]

[Transcriber’s Note: For reasons of space, this table is given in two forms: first a reduced version without translation, and then the complete text, including translations, split into two elements.]

CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV ACTIVE PRESENT amāns monēns regēns capiēns audiēns FUTURE amātūrus monitūrus rēctūrus captūrus audītūrus

PASSIVE PERFECT amātus monitus rēctus captus audītus FUTURE[2] amandus monendus regendus capiendus audiendus

CONJ. I CONJ. II ACTIVE PRESENT amāns monēns loving advising FUTURE amātūrus monitūrus about to love about to advise

PASSIVE PERFECT amātus monitus loved, having advised, having been advised been loved FUTURE[2] amandus monendus to be loved to be advised

CONJ. III CONJ. IV ACTIVE PRESENT regēns capiēns audiēns ruling taking hearing FUTURE rēctūrus captūrus audītūrus about to rule about to take about to hear

PASSIVE PERFECT rēctus captus audītus ruled, having taken, having heard, havinh been ruled been taken been heard FUTURE[2] regendus capiendus audiendus to be ruled to be taken to be heard

[Footnote 1: Review §203.]

[Footnote 2: The future passive participle is often called the gerundive.]

a. The present active and future passive participles are formed from the present stem, and the future active and perfect passive participles are formed from the participial stem.

b. The present active participle is formed by adding «-ns» to the present stem. In «-iō» verbs of the third conjugation, and in the fourth conjugation, the stem is modified by the addition of «-ē-», as «capi-ē-ns», «audi-ē-ns». It is declined like an adjective of one ending of the third declension. (Cf. §256.)

«amāns», loving BASE «amant-» STEM «amanti-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. Nom. amāns amāns amantēs amantia Gen. amantis amantis amantium amantium Dat. amantī amantī amantibus amantibus Acc. amantem amāns amantīs amantia or -ēs Abl. amantī amantī amantibus amantibus or -e or -e

(1) When used as an adjective the ablative singular ends in «-ī»; when used as a participle or as a substantive, in «-e».

(2) In a similar way decline «monēns», «regēns», «capiēns», «audiēns».

c. The future active participle is formed by adding «-ūrus» to the base of the participial stem. We have already met this form combined with «esse» to produce the future active infinitive. (Cf. §206.)

d. For the perfect passive participle see §201. The future passive participle or gerundive is formed by adding «-ndus» to the present stem.

e. All participles in «-us» are declined like «bonus».

f. Participles agree with nouns or pronouns like adjectives.

g. Give all the participles of the following verbs: «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō».

«375.» «Participles of Deponent Verbs.» Deponent verbs have the participles of the active voice as well as of the passive; consequently every deponent verb has four participles, as,

Pres. Act. «hortāns», urging Fut. Act. «hortātūrus», about to urge Perf. Pass. (in form) «hortātus», having urged Fut. Pass. (Gerundive) «hortandus», to be urged

a. Observe that the perfect participle of deponent verbs is passive in form but active in meaning. No other verbs have a perfect active participle. On the other hand, the future passive participle of deponent verbs is passive in meaning as in other verbs.

b. Give the participles of «cōnor», «vereor», «sequor», «patior», «partior».

«376.» «Tenses of the Participle.» The tenses express time as follows:

1. The present active participle corresponds to the English present active participle in -ing, but can be used only of an action occurring at the same time as the action of the main verb; as, «mīlitēs īnsequentēs cēpērunt multōs», the soldiers, while pursuing, captured many. Here the pursuing and the capturing are going on together.

2. The perfect participle (excepting of deponents) is regularly passive and corresponds to the English past participle with or without the auxiliary having been; as, «audītus», heard or having been heard.

3. The future active participle, translated about to, etc., denotes time after the action of the main verb.

«377.» Review §§203, 204, and, note the following model sentences:

1. «Mīlitēs currentēs erant dēfessī», the soldiers who were running (lit. running) were weary.

2. «Caesar profectūrus Rōmam nōn exspectāvit», Cæsar, when about to set out (lit. about to set out) for Rome, did not wait.

3. «Oppidum captum vīdimus», we saw the town which had been captured (lit. captured town).

4. «Imperātor trīduum morātus profectus est», the general, since (when, or after) he had delayed (lit. the general, having delayed) three days, set out.

5. «Mīlitēs vīctī terga nōn vertērunt», the soldiers, though they were conquered (lit. the soldiers conquered), did not retreat.

In each of these sentences the literal translation of the participle is given in parentheses. We note, however, that its proper translation usually requires a clause beginning with some conjunction (when, since, after, though, etc.), or a relative clause. Consider, in each case, what translation will best bring out the thought, and do not, as a rule, translate the participle literally.

«378.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Puer timēns nē capiātur fugit. 2. Aquila īrā commōta avīs reliquās interficere cōnāta erat. 3. Mīlitēs ab hostibus pressī tēla iacere nōn potuērunt. 4. Caesar decimam legiōnem laudātūrus ad prīmum agmen prōgressus est. 5. Imperātor hortātus equitēs ut fortiter pugnārent signum proeliō dedit. 6. Mīlitēs hostīs octō milia passuum īnsecūtī multīs cum captīvīs ad castra revertērunt. 7. Sōl oriēns multōs interfectōs vīdit. 8. Rōmānī cōnsilium audāx suspicātī barbaris sēsē nōn commīsērunt. 9. Nāvis ē portū ēgressa nūllō in perīculō erat.

II.[3] 1. The army was in very great danger while marching through the enemy’s country. 2. Frightened by the length of the way, they longed for home. 3. When the scouts were about to set out, they heard the shouts of victory. 4. When we had delayed many days, we set fire to the buildings and departed. 5. While living at Rome I heard orators much better than these. 6. The soldiers who are fighting across the river are no braver than we.

[Footnote 3: In this exercise use participles for the subordinate clauses.]

LESSON LXVII

THE IRREGULAR VERBS VOLŌ, NŌLŌ, MĀLŌ THE ABLATIVE WITH A PARTICIPLE, OR ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE

«379.» Learn the principal parts and conjugation of «volō», wish; «nōlō» («ne» + «volō»), be unwilling; «mālō» («magis» + «volō»), be more willing, prefer (§497). Note the irregularities in the present indicative, subjunctive, and infinitive, and in the imperfect subjunctive. (Cf. §354.)

a. These verbs are usually followed by the infinitive with or without a subject accusative; as, «volunt venīre», they wish to come; «volunt amīcōs venīre», they wish their friends to come. The English usage is the same.[1]

[Footnote 1: Sometimes the subjunctive of purpose is used after these verbs. (See §366.)]

[ Conjugations given in §497:

PRINCIPAL PARTS: «volō, velle, voluī», ----, be willing, will, wish «nōlō, nōlle, nōluī», ----, be unwilling, will not «mālō, mālle, māluī», ----, be more willing, prefer

INDICATIVE SINGULAR Pres. volō nōlō mālō vīs nōn vis māvīs vult nōn vult māvult

PLURAL volumus nōlumus mālumus vultis nōn vultis māvul´tis volunt nōlunt mālunt

Impf. volēbam nōlēbam mālēbam Fut. volam, volēs, etc. nōlam, nōlēs, etc. mālam, mālēs, etc. Perf. voluī nōluī māluī Plup. volueram nōlueram mālueram F.P. voluerō nōluerō māluerō

SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR Pres. velim nōlim mālim velīs nōlīs mālīs velit nōlit mālit

PLURAL velī´mus nōlī´mus mālī´mus velī´tis nōlī´tis mālī´tis velint nōlint mālint

Impf. vellem nōllem māllem Perf. voluerim nōluerim māluerim Plup. voluissem nōluissem māluissem

IMPERATIVE Pres. nōlī nōlīte Fut. nōlītō, etc.

INFINITIVE Pres. velle nōlle mālle Perf. voluisse nōluisse māluisse

PARTICIPLE Pres. volēns, -entis nōlēns, -entis ----]

«380.» Observe the following sentences:

1. «Magistrō laudante omnēs puerī dīligenter labōrant», with the teacher praising, or since the teacher praises, or the teacher praising, all the boys labor diligently.

2. «Caesare dūcente nēmō prōgredī timet», with Cæsar leading, or when Cæsar leads, or if Cæsar leads, or Cæsar leading, no one fears to advance.

3. «Hīs rēbus cognitīs mīlitēs fūgērunt», when this was known, or since this was known, or these things having been learned, the soldiers fled.

4. «Proeliō commissō multī vulnerātī sunt», after the battle had begun, or when the battle had begun, or the battle having been joined, many were wounded.

a. One of the fundamental ablative relations is expressed in English by the preposition with (cf. §50). In each of the sentences above we have a noun and a participle in agreement in the ablative, and the translation shows that in each instance the ablative expresses attendant circumstance. For example, in the first sentence the circumstance attending or accompanying the diligent labor of the boys is the praise of the teacher. This is clearly a with relation, and the ablative is the case to use.

b. We observe, further, that the ablative and its participle are absolutely independent grammatically of the rest of the sentence. If we were to express the thought in English in a similar way, we should use the nominative independent or absolute. In Latin the construction is called the Ablative Absolute, or the Ablative with a Participle. This form of expression is exceedingly common in Latin, but rather rare in English, so we must not, as a rule, employ the English absolute construction to translate the ablative abolute. The attendant circumstance may be one of time (when or after), or one of cause (since), or one of concession (though), or one of condition (if). In each case try to discover the precise relation, and translate the ablative and its participle by a clause which will best express the thought.

«381.» RULE. «Ablative Absolute.» The ablative of a noun or pronoun with a present or perfect participle in agreement is used to express attendant circumstance.

NOTE 1. The verb «sum» has no present participle. In consequence we often find two nouns or a noun and an adjective in the ablative absolute with no participle expressed; as, «tē duce», you (being) leader, with you as leader; «patre īnfirmō», my father (being) weak.

NOTE 2. Be very careful not to put in the ablative absolute a noun and participle that form the subject or object of a sentence. Compare

a. The Gauls, having been conquered by Cæsar, returned home

b. The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar, the army returned home

In a the subject is The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar, and we translate,

«Gallī ā Caesare victi domum revertērunt»

In b the subject is the army. The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar is nominative absolute in English, which requires the ablative absolute in Latin, and we translate,

«Gallīs ā Caesare victīs exercitus domum revertit»

NOTE 3. The fact that only deponent verbs have a perfect active participle (cf. §375.a) often compels a change of voice when translating from one language to the other. For example, we can translate Cæsar having encouraged the legions just as it stands, because «hortor» is a deponent verb. But if we wish to say Cæsar having conquered the Gauls, we have to change the voice of the participle to the passive because «vincō» is not deponent, and say, the Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar (see translation above).

«382.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Māvīs, nōn vīs, vultis, nōlumus. 2. Ut nōlit, ut vellēmus, ut mālit. 3. Nōlī, velle, nōluisse, mālle. 4. Vult, māvultis, ut nōllet, nōlīte. 5. Sōle oriente, avēs cantāre incēpērunt. 6. Clāmōribus audītīs, barbarī prōgredī recūsābant. 7. Caesare legiōnēs hortātō, mīlitēs paulō fortius pugnāvērunt. 8. Hīs rēbus cognitīs, Helvētiī fīnitimīs persuāsērunt ut sēcum iter facerent. 9. Labōribus cōnfectīs, mīlitēs ā Caesare quaerēbant ut sibi praemia daret. 10. Conciliō convocātō, prīncipēs ita respondērunt. 11. Dux plūrīs diēs in Helvētiōrum fīnibus morāns multōs vīcōs incendit. 12. Magnitūdine Germānōrum cognitā, quīdam ex Rōmānis timēbant. 13. Mercātōribus rogātīs, Caesar nihilō plūs reperīre potuit.

II. 1. He was unwilling, lest they prefer, they have wished. 2. You prefer, that they might be unwilling, they wish. 3. We wish, they had preferred, that he may prefer. 4. Cæsar, when he heard the rumor (the rumor having been heard), commanded («imperāre») the legions to advance more quickly. 5. Since Cæsar was leader, the men were willing to make the journey. 6. A few, terrified[2] by the reports which they had heard, preferred to remain at home. 7. After these had been left behind, the rest hastened as quickly as possible. 8. After Cæsar had undertaken the business (Cæsar, the business having been undertaken), he was unwilling to delay longer.[3]

[Footnote 2: Would the ablative absolute be correct here?]

[Footnote 3: Not «longius». Why?]

LESSON LXVIII

THE IRREGULAR VERB FĪŌ · THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF RESULT

«383.» The verb «fīō», be made, happen, serves as the passive of «faciō», make, in the present system. The rest of the verb is formed regularly from «faciō». Learn the principal parts and conjugation (§500). Observe that the «i» is long except before «-er» and in «fit».

a. The compounds of «facio» with prepositions usually form the passive regularly, as,

Active «cōnficiō, cōnficere, cōnfēcī, cōnfectus» Passive «cōnficior, cōnficī, cōnfectus sum»

[ Conjugation given in §500:

PRINCIPAL PARTS «fīō, fierī, factus sum»

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE Pres. fīō ---- fīam 2d Pers. fī fīte fīs ---- fit fīunt Impf. fīēbam fierem Fut. fīam ----

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Perf. factus, -a, -um sum factus, -a, -um sim Plup. factus, -a, -um eram factus, -a, -um essem F.P. factus, -a, -um erō

INFINITIVE PARTICIPLES Pres. fierī Perf. factus, -a, -um Perf. factus, -a, -um esse Ger. faciendus, -a, -um Fut. [[factum īrī]]]

«384.» Observe the following sentences:

1. «Terror erat tantus ut omnēs fugerent», the terror was so great that all fled.

2. «Terror erat tantus ut nōn facile mīlitēs sēsē reciperent», the terror was so great that the soldiers did not easily recover themselves.

3. «Terror fēcit ut omnēs fugerent», terror caused all to flee (lit. made that all fled).

a. Each of these sentences is complex, containing a principal clause and a subordinate clause.

b. The principal clause names a cause and the subordinate clause states the consequence or result of this cause.

c. The subordinate clause has its verb in the subjunctive, though it is translated like an indicative. The construction is called the subjunctive of consequence or result, and the clause is called a consecutive or result clause.

d. In the last example the clause of result is the object of the verb «fēcit».

e. The conjunction introducing the consecutive or result clause is «ut» = so that; negative, «ut nōn» = so that not.

«385.» RULE. «Subjunctive of Result.» Consecutive clauses of result are introduced by «ut» or «ut nōn» and have the verb in the subjunctive.

«386.» RULE. Object clauses of result with «ut» or «ut nōn» are found after verbs of «effecting» or «bringing about».

«387.» «Purpose and Result Clauses Compared.» There is great similarity in the expression of purpose and of result in Latin. If the sentence is affirmative, both purpose and result clauses may be introduced by «ut»; but if the sentence is negative, the purpose clause has «nē» and the result clause «ut nōn». Result clauses are often preceded in the main clause by such words as «tam», «ita», «sic» (so), and these serve to point them out. Compare

a. «Tam graviter vulnerātus est ut caperētur» He was so severely wounded that he was captured b. «Graviter vulnerātus est ut caperētur» He was severely wounded in order that he might be captured

Which sentence contains a result clause, and how is it pointed out?

«388.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Fit, fīet, ut fīat, fīēbāmus. 2. Fīō, fīēs, ut fierent, fierī, fīunt. 3. Fīētis, ut fīāmus, fīs, fīemus. 4. Mīlitēs erant tam tardī ut ante noctem in castra nōn pervenīrent. 5. Sōl facit ut omnia sint pulchra. 6. Eius modī perīcula erant ut nēmō proficīscī vellet. 7. Equitēs hostium cum equitātū nostrō in itinere contendērunt, ita tamen[1] ut nostrī omnibus in partibus superiōrēs essent. 8. Virtūs mīlitum nostrōrum fēcit ut hostēs nē ūnum quidem[2] impetum sustinērent. 9. Hominēs erant tam audācēs ut nūllō modō continērī possent. 10. Spatium erat tam parvum ut mīlitēs tēla iacere nōn facile possent. 11. Hōc proeliō factō barbarī ita perterritī sunt ut ab ultimīs gentibus lēgātī ad Caesarem mitterentur. 12. Hoc proelium factum est nē lēgātī ad Caesarem mitterentur.

[Footnote 1: «ita tamen», with such a result however.]

[Footnote 2: «nē ... quidem», not even. The emphatic word is placed between.]

II. 1. It will happen, they were being made, that it may happen. 2. It happens, he will be made, to happen. 3. They are made, we were being made, lest it happen. 4. The soldiers are so brave that they conquer. 5. The soldiers are brave in order that they may conquer. 6. The fortification was made so strong that it could not be taken. 7. The fortification was made strong in order that it might not be taken. 8. After the town was taken,[3] the townsmen feared that they would be made slaves. 9. What state is so weak that it is unwilling to defend itself?

[Footnote 3: Ablative absolute.]

LESSON LXIX

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC OR DESCRIPTION THE PREDICATE ACCUSATIVE

«389.» Akin to the subjunctive of consequence or result is the use of the subjunctive in clauses of characteristic or description.

This construction is illustrated in the following sentences:

1. «Quis est quī suam domum nōn amet?» who is there who does not love his own home?

2. «Erant quī hoc facere nōllent», there were (some) who were unwilling to do this.

3. «Tū nōn is es quī amīcōs trādās», you are not such a one as to, or you are not the man to, betray your friends.

4. «Nihil videō quod timeam», I see nothing to fear (nothing of such as character as to fear it).

a. Each of these examples contains a descriptive relative clause which tells what kind of a person or thing the antecedent is. To express this thought the subjunctive is used. A relative clause that merely states a fact and does not describe the antecedent uses the indicative. Compare the sentences

Cæsar is the man who is leading us, «Caesar est is quī nōs dūcit» (mere statement of fact, no description, with the indicative) Cæsar is the man to lead us, «Caesar est is quī nōs dūcat» (descriptive relative clause with the subjunctive)

b. Observe that in this construction a demonstrative pronoun and a relative, as is «quī», are translated such a one as to, the man to.

c. In which of the following sentences would you use the indicative and in which the subjunctive?

These are not the men who did this These are not the men to do this

«390.» RULE. «Subjunctive of Characteristic.» A relative clause with the subjunctive is often used to describe an antecedent. This is called the «subjunctive of characteristic or description».

«391.» Observe the sentences

1. Rōmānī «Caesarem cōnsulem» fēcērunt, the Romans made «Cæsar consul».

2. «Caesar cōnsul» ā Rōmānīs factus est, «Cæsar» was made «consul» by the Romans.

a. Observe in 1 that the transitive verb «fēcērunt», made, has two objects: (1) the direct object, «Caesarem»; (2) a second object, «cōnsulem», referring to the same person as the direct object and completing the predicate. The second accusative is called a Predicate Accusative.

b. Observe in 2 that when the verb is changed to the passive both of the accusatives become nominatives, the direct object becoming the subject and the predicate accusative the predicate nominative.

«392.» RULE. «Two Accusatives.» Verbs of «making», «choosing», «calling», «showing», and the like, may take a predicate accusative along with the direct object. With the passive voice the two accusatives become nominatives.

«393.» The verbs commonly found with two accusatives are

«creo, creāre, creāvī, creātus», choose «appellō, appellāre, appellāvī, appellātus» } «nōminō, nōmināre, nōmināvī, nōminātus» } call «vocō, vocāre, vocāvī, vocātus» } «faciō, facere, fēcī, factus», make

«394.» EXERCISES

I. 1. In Germāniae silvis sunt[1] multa genera ferārum quae reliquīs in locīs nōn vīsa sint. 2. Erant[1] itinera duo quibus Helvētiī domō discēdere possent. 3. Erat[1] manus nūlla, nūllum oppidum, nūllum praesidium quod sē armīs dēfenderet. 4. Tōtō frūmentō raptō, domī nihil erat quō mortem prohibēre possent. 5. Rōmānī Galbam ducem creāvērunt et summā celeritāte profectī sunt. 6. Neque erat[1] tantae multitūdinis quisquam quī morārī vellet. 7. Germānī nōn iī sunt quī adventum Caesaris vereantur. 8. Cōnsulibus occīsīs erant quī[2] vellent cum rēgem creāre. 9. Pāce factā erat nēmō quī arma trādere nōllet. 10. Inter Helvētiōs quis erat quī nōbilior illō esset?

II. 1. The Romans called the city Rome. 2. The city was called Rome by the Romans. 3. The better citizens wished to choose him king. 4. The brave soldier was not the man to run. 5. There was no one [3]to call me friend. 6. These are not the men to[4] betray their friends. 7. There were (some) who called him the bravest of all.

[Footnote 1: Remember that when the verb «sum» precedes its subject it is translated there is, there are, there were, etc.]

[Footnote 2: «erant quī», there were (some) who. A wholly indefinite antecedent of «quī» does not need to be expressed.]

[Footnote 3: A relative clause of characteristic or description.]

[Footnote 4: See §389.b.]

«Eighth Review, Lessons LXI-LXIX, §§527-528»

LESSON LXX

THE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE CONJUNCTION CUM THE ABLATIVE OF SPECIFICATION

«395.» The conjunction «cum» has the following meanings and constructions:

«cum» TEMPORAL = when, followed by the indicative or the subjunctive «cum» CAUSAL = since, followed by the subjunctive «cum» CONCESSIVE = although, followed by the subjunctive

As you observe, the mood after «cum» is sometimes indicative and sometimes subjunctive. The reason for this will be made clear by a study of the following sentences:

1. «Caesarem vīdī tum cum in Galliā eram», I saw Cæsar at the time when I was in Gaul.

2. «Caesar in eōs impetum fēcit cum pācem peterent», Cæsar made an attack upon them when they were seeking peace.

3. «Hoc erat difficile cum paucī sine vulneribus essent», this was difficult, since only a few were without wounds.

4. «Cum prīmī ōrdinēs fūgissent, tamen reliquī fortiter cōnsistēbant», though the front ranks had fled, yet the rest bravely stood their ground.

a. The underlying principle is one already familiar to you (cf. §389.a). When the «cum» clause states a fact and simply fixes the time at which the main action took place, the indicative mood is used. So, in the first example, «cum in Galliā eram» fixes the time when I saw Cæsar.

b. On the other hand, when the «cum» clause describes the circumstances under which the main act took place, the subjunctive mood is used. So, in the second example, the principal clause states that Cæsar made an attack, and the «cum» clause describes the circumstances under which this act occurred. The idea of time is also present, but it is subordinate to the idea of description. Sometimes the descriptive clause is one of cause and we translate «cum» by since; sometimes it denotes concession and «cum» is translated although.

«396.» RULE. «Constructions with Cum». The conjunction «cum» means «when», «since», or «although». It is followed by the subjunctive unless it means «when» and its clause fixes the time at which the main action took place.

NOTE. «Cum» in clauses of description with the subjunctive is much more common than its use with the indicative.

«397.» Note the following sentences:

1. «Oppidum erat parvum magnitūdine sed magnum multitūdine hominum», the town was small in size but great in population.

2. «Homō erat corpore īnfīrmus sed validus animō», the man was weak in body but strong in courage.

a. Observe that «magnitūdine», «multitūdine», «corpore», and «animō» tell in what respect something is true. The relation is one covered by the ablative case, and the construction is called the ablative of specification.

«398.» RULE. «Ablative of Specification.» The ablative is used to denote «in what respect» something is true.

«399.» IDIOMS

«aliquem certiōrem facere», to inform some one (lit. to make some one more certain) «certior fierī», to be informed (lit. to be made more certain) «iter dare», to give a right of way, allow to pass «obsidēs inter sē dare», to give hostages to each other

«400.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Helvētiī cum patrum nostrōrum tempore domō prefectī essent, cōnsulis exercitum in fugam dederant. 2. Cum Caesar in Galliam vēnit, Helvētiī aliōs agrōs petēbant. 3. Caesar cum in citeriōre Gallia esset, tamen dē Helvētiōrum cōnsiliīs certior fīēbat. 4. Cum Helvētiī bellō clārissimī essent, Caesar iter per prōvinciam dare recūsāvit. 5. Lēgātus cum haec audīvisset, Caesarem certiōrem fecit. 6. Cum principēs inter sē obsidēs darent, Rōmānī bellum parāvērunt. 7. Caesar, cum id nūntiātum esset, mātūrat ab urbe proficīscī. 8. Nē virtūte quidem Gallī erant parēs Germānis. 9. Caesar neque corpore neque animō īnfīrmus erat. 10. Illud bellum tum incēpit cum Caesar fuit cōnsul.

Observe in each case what mood follows «cum», and try to give the reasons for its use. In the third sentence the «cum» clause is concessive, in the fourth and sixth causal.

II. 1. That battle was fought at the time when («tum cum») I was at Rome. 2. Though the horsemen were few in number, nevertheless they did not retreat. 3. When the camp had been sufficiently fortified, the enemy returned home. 4. Since the tribes are giving hostages to each other, we shall inform Cæsar. 5. The Gauls and the Germans are very unlike in language and laws.

LESSON LXXI

VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE · THE PREDICATE GENITIVE

«401.» Review the word lists in §§510, 511.

«402.» «The Gerund.» Suppose we had to translate the sentence

By overcoming the Gauls Cæsar won great glory

We can see that overcoming here is a verbal noun corresponding to the English infinitive in -ing, and that the thought calls for the ablative of means. To translate this by the Latin infinitive would be impossible, because the infinitive is indeclinable and therefore has no ablative case form. Latin, however, has another verbal noun of corresponding meaning, called the «gerund», declined as a neuter of the second declension in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular, and thus supplying the cases that the infinitive lacks.[1] Hence, to decline in Latin the verbal noun overcoming, we should use the infinitive for the nominative and the gerund for the other cases, as follows:

Nom. «superāre», overcoming, to overcome INFINITIVE Gen. «superandī», of overcoming } Dat. «superandō», for overcoming } Acc. «superandum», overcoming } GERUND Abl. «superandō», by overcoming }

Like the infinitive, the gerund governs the same case as the verb from which it is derived. So the sentence given above becomes in Latin

«Superandō Gallōs Caesar magnam glōriam reportāvit»

[Footnote 1: Sometimes, however, the infinitive is used as an accusative.]

«403.» The gerund[2] is formed by adding «-ndī, -ndō, -ndum, -ndō», to the present stem, which is shortened or otherwise changed, as shown below:

PARADIGM OF THE GERUND

CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV Gen. amandī monendī regendī capiendī audiendī Dat. amandō monendō regendō capiendō audiendō Acc. amandum monendum regendum capiendum audiendum Abl. amandō monendō regendō capiendō audiendō

a. Give the gerund of «cūrō», «dēleō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «veniō».

b. Deponent verbs have the gerund of the active voice (see §493). Give the gerund of «cōnor», «vereor», «sequor», «patior», «partior».

[Footnote 2: The gerund is the neuter singular of the future passive participle used as a noun, and has the same formation. (Cf. §374.d.)]

«404.» «The Gerundive.» The gerundive is the name given to the future passive participle (§374.d) when the participle approaches the meaning of a verbal noun and is translated like a gerund. It is the adjective corresponding to the gerund. For example, to translate the plan of waging war, we may use the gerund with its direct object and say «cōnsilium gerendī bellum»; or we may use the gerundive and say «cōnsilium bellī gerendī», which means, literally, the plan of the war to be waged, but which came to have the same force as the gerund with its object, and was even preferred to it.

«405.» Compare the following parallel uses of the gerund and gerundive:

GERUND GERUNDIVE Gen. «Spēs faciendī pācem» «Spēs faciendae pācis» Dat. «Locus idōneus pugnandō» «Locus idōneus castrīs pōnendīs» A place suitable for A place suitable for fighting pitching camp Acc. «Mīsit equitēs ad īnsequendum» «Mīsit equitēs ad īnsequendōs hostīs» He sent horsemen to pursue He sent horsemen to pursue the enemy Abl. «Nārrandō fābulās magister «Nārrandīs fābulīs magister puerīs placuit» puerīs placuit» The teacher pleased the The teacher pleased the boys by telling stories boys by telling stories

a. We observe

(1) That the gerund is a noun and the gerundive an adjective. (2) That the gerund, being a noun, may stand alone or with an object. (3) That the gerundive, being an adjective, is used only in agreement with a noun.

«406.» RULE. «Gerund and Gerundive.»

1. The Gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns.

2. The Gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual.

«407.» RULE. «Gerund or Gerundive of Purpose.» The accusative of the gerund or gerundive with «ad», or the genitive with «causā»[3] (= for the sake of), is used to express purpose.

GERUND GERUNDIVE «Ad audiendum vēnērunt» or «Ad urbem videndam vēnērunt» or «Audiendī causā vēnērunt» «Urbis videndae causā vēnērunt» They came to hear They came to see the city

[Footnote 3: «causā» always follows the genitive.]

NOTE. These sentences might, of course, be written with the subjunctive of purpose,--«vēnērunt ut audīrent»; «vēnērunt ut urbem vidērent.» In short expressions, however, the gerund and gerundive of purpose are rather more common.

«408.» We have learned that the word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the genitive, as, «equus Galbae», Galba’s horse. If, now, we wish to express the idea the horse is Galba’s, Galba remains the possessor, and hence in the genitive as before, but now stands in the predicate, as, «equus est Galbae». Hence this is called the predicate genitive.

«409.» RULE. «Predicate Genitive.» The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, especially after the forms of «sum», and is then called the predicate genitive.

«410.» IDIOMS

«alīcui negōtium dare», to employ someone (lit. to give business to some one) «novīs rēbus studēre», to be eager for a revolution (lit. to be eager for new things) «reī mīlitāris perītissimus», very skillful in the art of war «sē suaque omnia», themselves and all their possessions

«411.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Caesar cum in Galliā bellum gereret, militibus decimae legiōnis maximē fāvit quia reī mīlitāris perītissimī erant. 2. Sociīs negōtium dedit reī frumentāriae cūrandae. 3. Lēgāti nōn sōlum audiendī causā sed etiam dicendī causā vēnērunt. 4. Imperātor iussit explōrātōres locum idōneum mūnindō reperīre. 5. Nuper hae gentēs novīs rēbus studēbant; mox iīs persuādēbō ut Caesarī sē suaque omnia dēdant. 6. Iubēre est regīnae[4] et pārēre est multitūdinis.[4] 7. Hōc proeliō factō quīdam ex hostibus ad pācem petendam venērunt. 8. Erant quī arma trādere nōllent. 9. Hostēs tam celeriter prōgressī sunt ut spatium pīla in hostīs iaciendī non darētur. 10. Spatium neque arma capiendī[5] neque auxilī petendī[5] datum est.

II. 1. These ornaments [6]belong to Cornelia. 2. Men very skillful in the art of war were sent [7]to capture the town. 3. The scouts found a hill suitable for fortifying very near to the river. 4. Soon the cavalry will come [8]to seek supplies. 5. The mind of the Gauls is eager for revolution and for undertaking wars. 6. To lead the line of battle [9]belongs to the general. 7. [10]Whom shall we employ to look after the grain supply?

[Footnote 4: Predicate genitive.]

[Footnote 5: Which of these expressions is gerund and which gerundive?]

[Footnote 6: belong to = are of.]

[Footnote 7: Use the gerundive with «ad».]

[Footnote 8: Use the genitive with «causā». Where should «causā» stand?]

[Footnote 9: Compare the first sentence.]

[Footnote 10: Compare the second sentence in the Latin above.]

LESSON LXXII

THE IRREGULAR VERB EŌ · INDIRECT STATEMENTS

«412.» Learn the principal parts and the conjugation of «eō», go (§499).

a. Notice that «ī-», the root of «eō», is changed to «e-» before a vowel, excepting in «iēns», the nominative of the present participle. In the perfect system «-v-» is regularly dropped.

[ Conjugation given in §499:

PRINCIPAL PARTS «eō, īre, iī (īvī), ĭtum» (n. perf. part.) PRES. STEM ī- PERF. STEM ī- or īv- PART. STEM it-

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE SING. PLUR. Pres. eō īmus eam 2d Pers. ī īte īs ītis it eunt Impf. ībam īrem Fut. ībō ---- 2d Pers. ītō ītōte 3d Pers. ītō euntō Perf. iī (īvī) ierim (īverim) Plup. ieram (īveram) īssem (īvissem) F. P. ierō (īverō)

INFINITIVE Pres. īre Perf. īsse (īvisse) Fut. itūrus, -a, -um esse

PARTICIPLES Pres. iēns, gen. euntis (§472) Fut. itūrus, -a, -um Ger. eundum

GERUND Gen. eundī Dat. eundō Acc. eundum Abl. eundō

SUPINE Acc. [[itum]] Abl. [[itū]] ]

«413.» Learn the meaning and principal parts of the following compounds of «eō» with prepositions:

«ad´eō, adī´re, ad´iī, ad´itus», go to, visit, with the accusative «ex´eō, exī´re, ex´iī, ex´itus», go forth, with «ex» or «dē» and the ablative of the place from which «in´eō, inī´re, in´iī, in´itus», begin, enter upon, with the accusative «red´eō, redī´re, red´iī, red´itus», return, with «ad» or «in» and the accusative of the place to which «trāns´eō, trānsī´re, trāns´iī, trāns´itus», cross, with the accusative

«414.» «Indirect Statements in English.» Direct statements are those which the speaker or writer makes himself or which are quoted in his exact language. Indirect statements are those reported in a different form of words from that used by the speaker or writer. Compare the following direct and indirect statements:

{ 1. The Gauls are brave Direct statements { 2. The Gauls were brave { 3. The Gauls will be brave

Indirect statements { 1. He says that the Gauls are brave after a verb in { 2. He says that the Gauls were brave the present tense { 3. He says that the Gauls will be brave

Indirect statements { 1. He said that the Gauls were brave after a verb in { 2. He said that the Gauls had been brave a past tense { 3. He said that the Gauls would be brave

We see that in English

a. The indirect statement forms a clause introduced by the conjunction that.

b. The verb is finite (cf. §173) and its subject is in the nominative.

c. The tenses of the verbs originally used are changed after the past tense, He said.

«415.» «Indirect Statements in Latin.» In Latin the direct and indirect statements above would be as follows:

DIRECT { 1. «Gallī sunt fortēs» STATEMENTS { 2. «Gallī erant fortēs» { 3. «Gallī erunt fortēs»

{ 1. «Dīcit» or «Dīxit Gallōs esse fortīs» { (He says or He said { the Gauls to be brave)[1] INDIRECT { 2. «Dīcit» or «Dīxit Gallōs fuisse fortīs» STATEMENTS { (He says or He said { the Gauls to have been brave)[1] { 3. «Dīcit» or «Dīxit Gallōs futūrōs esse fortīs» { (He says or He said { the Gauls to be about to be brave)[1]

[Footnote 1: These parenthetical renderings are not inserted as translations, but merely to show the literal meaning of the Latin.]

Comparing these Latin indirect statements with the English in the preceding section, we observe three marked differences:

a. There is no conjunction corresponding to that.

b. The verb is in the infinitive and its subject is in the accusative.

c. The tenses of the infinitive are not changed after a past tense of the principal verb.

«416.» RULE. «Indirect Statements.» When a direct statement becomes indirect, the principal verb is changed to the infinitive and its subject nominative becomes subject accusative of the infinitive.

«417.» «Tenses of the Infinitive.» When the sentences in §415 were changed from the direct to the indirect form of statement, «sunt» became «esse», «erant» became «fuisse», and «erunt» became «futūrōs esse».

«418.» RULE. «Infinitive Tenses in Indirect Statements.» A present indicative of a direct statement becomes present infinitive of the indirect, a past indicative becomes perfect infinitive, and a future indicative becomes future infinitive.

NOTE. When translating into Latin an English indirect statement, first decide what tense of the indicative would have been used in the direct form. That will show you what tense of the infinitive to use in the indirect.

«419.» RULE. «Verbs followed by Indirect Statements.» The accusative-with-infinitive construction in indirect statements is found after verbs of «saying», «telling», «knowing», «thinking», and «perceiving».

«420.» Verbs regularly followed by indirect statements are:

a. Verbs of saying and telling: «dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus», say «negō, negāre, negāvī, negātus», deny, say not «nūntiō, nūntiāre, nūntiāvī, nūntiātus», announce «respondeō, respondēre, respondī, respōnsus», reply

b. Verbs of knowing: «cognōscō, cognōscere, cognōvī, cognitus», learn, (in the perf.) know «sciō, scīre, scīvī, scītus», know

c. Verbs of thinking: «arbitror, arbitrārī, arbitrātus sum», think, consider «exīstimō, exīstimāre, exīstimāvī, exīstimātus», think, believe «iūdicō, iūdicāre, iūdicāvi, iūdicātus», judge, decide «putō, putāre, putāvī, putātus», reckon, think «spērō, spērāre, spērāvi, spērātus», hope

d. Verbs of perceiving: «audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus», hear «sentiō, sentīre, sēnsī, sēnsus», feel, perceive «videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsus», see «intellegō, intellegere, intellēxī, intellēctus», understand, perceive

Learn such of these verbs as are new to you.

«421.» IDIOMS «postrīdiē eius diēī», on the next day (lit. on the next day of that day) «initā aestāte», at the beginning of summer «memoriā tenēre», to remember (lit. to hold by memory) «per explōrātōrēs cognōscere», to learn through scouts

«422.» EXERCISES

I. 1. It, īmus, īte, īre. 2. Euntī, iisse or īsse, ībunt, eunt. 3. Eundi, ut eant, ībitis, īs. 4. Nē īrent, ī, ībant, ierat. 5. Caesar per explorātores cognōvit Gallōs flūmen trānsīsse. 6. Rōmānī audīvērunt Helvētiōs initā aestāte dē fīnibus suīs exitūrōs esse. 7. Legātī respondērunt nēminem ante Caesarem illam īnsulam adīsse. 8. Prīncipēs Gallōrum dīcunt sē nūllum cōnsilium contrā Caesaris imperium initūrōs esse. 9. Arbitrāmur potentiam rēgīnae esse maiōrem quam cīvium. 10. Rōmānī negant se lībertātem Gallīs ēreptūrōs esse. 11. Hīs rēbus cognitīs sēnsimus lēgātōs non vēnisse ad pācem petendam. 12. Helvētii sciunt Rōmānōs priōrēs victōriās memoriā tenēre. 13. Sociī cum intellegerent multōs vulnerārī, statuērunt in suōs fīnīs redīre. 14. Aliquis nūntiāvit Mārcum cōnsulem creātum esse.

II. 1. The boy is slow. He says that the boy is, was, (and) will be slow. 2. The horse is, has been, (and) will be strong. He judged that the horse was, had been, (and) would be strong. 3. We think that the army will go forth from the camp at the beginning of summer. 4. The next day we learned through scouts that the enemy’s town was ten miles off.[2] 5. The king replied that the ornaments belonged to[3] the queen.

[Footnote 2: to be off, to be distant, «abesse».]

[Footnote 3: Latin, were of (§409).]

[Illustration: TUBA]

LESSON LXXIII

VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE IRREGULAR VERB FERŌ THE DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS

«423.» Review the word lists in §§513, 514.

«424.» Learn the principal parts and conjugation of the verb «ferō», bear (§498).

1. Learn the principal parts and meanings of the following compounds of ferō, bear:

«ad´ferō, adfer´re, at´tulī, adlā´tus», bring to; report «cōn´ferō, cōnfer´re, con´tulī, conlā´tus», bring together, collect «dē´ferō, dēfer´re, dē´tulī, dēlā´tus», bring to; report; grant, confer «īn´ferō, īnfer´re, in´tulī, inlā´tus», bring in, bring against «re´ferō, refer´re, ret´tulī, relā´tus», bear back, report

[ Conjugation given in §498:

PRINCIPAL PARTS «ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus» PRES. STEM fer- PERF. STEM tul- PART. STEM lāt-

INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE Pres. ferō ferimus feror ferimur fers fertīs ferris, -re ferimimī fert ferunt fertur feruntur Impf. ferēbam ferēbar Fut. feram, ferēs, etc. ferar, ferēris, etc. Perf. tulī lātus, -a, -um sum Plup. tuleram lātus, -a, -um eram F.P. tulerō lātus, -a, -um erō

SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. feram, ferās, etc. ferar, ferāris, etc. Impf. ferrem ferrer Perf. tulerim lātus, -a, -um sim Plup. tulissem lātus, -a, -um essem

IMPERATIVE Pres. 2d Pers. fer ferte ferre feriminī Fut. 2d Pers. fertō fertōte fertor 3d Pers. fertō ferunto fertor feruntor

INFINITIVE Pres. ferre ferrī Perf. tulisse lātus, -a, -um esse Fut. lātūrus, -a, -um esse ----

PARTICIPLES Pres. ferēns, -entis Pres. ---- Fut. lātūrus, -a, -um Ger. ferendus, -a, -um Perf. ---- Perf. lātus, -a, -um

GERUND Gen. ferendī Dat. ferendō Acc. ferendum Abl. ferendō

SUPINE (Active Voice) Acc. [[lātum]] Abl. [[lātū]] ]

«425.» The dative is the case of the indirect object. Many intransitive verbs take an indirect object and are therefore used with the dative (cf. §153). Transitive verbs take a direct object in the accusative; but sometimes they have an indirect object or dative as well. The whole question, then, as to whether or not a verb takes the dative, depends upon its capacity for governing an indirect object. A number of verbs, some transitive and some intransitive, which in their simple form would not take an indirect object, when compounded with certain prepositions, have a meaning which calls for an indirect object. Observe the following sentences:

1. «Haec rēs exercituī magnam calamitātem attulit», this circumstance brought great disaster to the army.

2. «Germānī Gallīs bellum īnferunt», the Germans make war upon the Gauls.

3. «Hae cōpiae proeliō nōn intererant», these troops did not take part in the battle.

4. «Equitēs fugientibus hostibus occurrunt», the horsemen meet the fleeing enemy.

5. «Galba cōpiīs fīlium praefēcit», Galba put his son in command of the troops.

In each sentence there is a dative, and in each a verb combined with a preposition. In no case would the simple verb take the dative.

«426.» RULE. «Dative with Compounds.» Some verbs compounded with «ad», «ante», «con», «dē», «in», «inter», «ob», «post», «prae», «prō», «sub», «super», admit the dative of the indirect object. Transitive compounds may take both an accusative and a dative.

NOTE 1. Among such verbs are[1]

«ad´ferō, adfer´re, at´tulī, adlā´tus», bring to; report «ad´sum, ades´se, ad´fuī, adfutū´rus», assist; be present «dē´ferō, dēfer´re, dē´tulī, dēlātus», report; grant, confer «dē´sum, dees´se, dē´fuī,----», be wanting, be lacking «īn´ferō, īnfer´re, in´tulī, inlā´tus», bring against, bring upon «inter´sum, interes´se, inter´fuī, interfutū´rus», take part in «occur´rō, occur´rere, occur´rī, occur´sus», run against, meet «praefi´ciō, praefi´cere, praefē´cī, praefec´tus», appoint over, place in command of «prae´sum, praees´se, prae´fuī, ----», be over, be in command

[Footnote 1: But the accusative with «ad» or «in» is used with some of these, when the idea of motion to or against is strong.]

«427.» IDIOMS

«graviter» or «molestē ferre», to be annoyed at, to be indignant at, followed by the accusative and infinitive «sē cōnferre ad» or «in», with the accusative, to betake one’s self to «alicui bellum īnferre», to make war upon some one «pedem referre», to retreat (lit. to bear back the foot)

«428.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Fer, ferent, ut ferant, ferunt. 2. Ferte, ut ferrent, tulisse, tulerant. 3. Tulimus, ferēns, lātus esse, ferre. 4. Cum nāvigia insulae adpropinquārent, barbarī terrōre commōtī pedem referre cōnātī sunt. 5. Gallī molestē ferēbant Rōmānōs agrōs vastāre. 6. Caesar sociīs imperāvit nē fīnitimis suīs bellum īnferrent. 7. Explorātōrēs, qui Caesarī occurrērunt, dīxērunt exercitum hostium vulneribus dēfessum sēsē in alium locum contulisse. 8. Hostes sciēbant Rōmānōs frūmentō egēre et hanc rem Caesarī summum perīculum adlātūram esse. 9. Impedīmentīs in ūnum locum conlātis, aliquī mīlitum flūmen quod nōn longē aberat trānsiērunt. 10. Hōs rēx hortātus est ut ōrāculum adīrent et rēs audītās ad sē referrent. 11. Quem imperātor illī legiōnī praefēcit? Pūblius illī legiōnī pracerat. 12. Cum esset Caesar in citeriōre Galliā, crēbrī ad eum[2] rūmōrēs adferēbantur litterīsque quoque certior fīēbat Gallōs obsidēs inter sē dare.

II. 1. The Gauls will make war upon Cæsar’s allies. 2. We heard that the Gauls would make war upon Cæsar’s allies. 3. Publius did not take part in that battle. 4. We have been informed that Publius did not take part in that battle. 5. The man who was in command of the cavalry was wounded and began to retreat. 6. Cæsar did not place you in command of the cohort to bring[3] disaster upon the army.

[Footnote 2: Observe that when «adferō» denotes motion to, it is not followed by the dative; cf. footnote, p. 182.]

[Footnote 3: Not the infinitive. (Cf. §352.)]

LESSON LXXIV

VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS

«429.» Review the word lists in §§517, 518.

«430.» When we report a statement instead of giving it directly, we have an indirect statement. (Cf. §414.) So, if we report a question instead of asking it directly, we have an indirect question.

DIRECT QUESTION INDIRECT QUESTION Who conquered the Gauls? He asked who conquered the Gauls

a. An indirect question depends, usually as object, upon a verb of asking (as «petō», «postulō», «quaerō», «rogō») or upon some verb or expression of saying or mental action. (Cf. §420.)

«431.» Compare the following direct and indirect questions:

DIRECT INDIRECT

«Quis Gallōs vincit?» { a. «Rogat quis Gallōs vincat» Who is conquering the { He asks who is conquering the Gauls? { Gauls { b. «Rogavit quis Gallōs vinceret» { He asked who was conquering { the Gauls

{ a. «Rogat ubi sit Rōma» «Ubī est Rōma?» { He asks where Rome is Where is Rome? { b. «Rogāvit ubi esset Rōma» { He asked where Rome was

{ a. «Rogat num Caesar Gallōs vīcerit» { He asks whether Cæsar conquered «Caesarne Gallōs vīcit?» { the Gauls Did Cæsar conquer the { b. «Rogāvit num Caesar Gallōs Gauls? { «vīcisset» { He asked whether Cæsar had { conquered the Gauls

a. The verb in a direct question is in the indicative mood, but the mood is subjunctive in an indirect question.

b. The tense of the subjunctive follows the rules for tense sequence.

c. Indirect questions are introduced by the same interrogative words as introduce direct questions, excepting thatyes-or-no direct questions (cf. §210) on becoming indirect are usually introduced by «num», whether.

«432.» RULE. «Indirect Questions.» In an indirect question the verb is in the subjunctive and its tense is determined by the law for tense sequence.

«433.» IDIOMS

«dē tertiā vigiliā», about the third watch «iniūriās alicui īnferre», to inflict injuries upon some one «facere verba prō», with the ablative, to speak in behalf of «in reliquum tempus», for the future

«434.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Rēx rogāvit quid lēgātī postulārent et cūr ad sē vēnissent. 2. Quaesīvit quoque num nec recentīs iniūriās nec dubiam Rōmānōrum amīcitiam memoriā tenērent. 3. Vidētisne quae oppida hostēs oppugnāverint? 4. Nōnne scītis cūr Gallī sub montem sēse contulerint? 5. Audīvimus quās iniūrias tibi Germānī intulissent. 6. Dē tertiā vigiliā imperātor mīsit hominēs quī cognōscerent quae esset nātūra montis. 7. Prō hīs ōrātor verba fēcit et rogāvit cūr cōnsulēs nāvīs ad plēnem summī perīculī locum mittere vellent. 8. Lēgātīs convocātīs dēmōnstrāvit quid fierī vellet. 9. Nūntius referēbat quid in Gallōrum conciliō dē armīs trādendīs dictum esset. 10. Moneō nē in reliquum tempus peditēs et equitēs trāns flūmen dūcās.

II. 1. What hill did they seize? I see what hill they seized. 2. Who has inflicted these injuries upon our dependents? 3. They asked who had inflicted those injuries upon their dependents. 4. Whither did you go about the third watch? You know whither I went. 5. At what time did the boys return home? I will ask at what time the boys returned home.

LESSON LXXV

VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE DATIVE OF PURPOSE, OR END FOR WHICH

«435.» Review the word lists in §§521, 522.

«436.» Observe the following sentences:

1. «Explōrātōrēs locum castrīs dēlēgērunt», the scouts chose a place for a camp.

2. «Hoc erat magnō impedīmentō Gallīs», this was (for) a great hindrance to the Gauls.

3. «Duās legiōnēs praesidiō castrīs relīquit», he left two legions as (lit. for) a guard to the camp.

In each of these sentences we find a dative expressing the purpose or end for which something is intended or for which it serves. These datives are «castrīs», «impedīmentō», and «praesidiō». In the second and third sentences we find a second dative expressing the person or thing affected («Gallīs» and «castrīs»). As you notice, these are true datives, covering the relations of for which and to which. (Cf. §43.)

«437.» RULE. «Dative of Purpose or End.» The dative is used to denote the «purpose or end for which», often with another dative denoting the «person or thing affected».

«438.» IDIOMS

«cōnsilium omittere», to give up a plan «locum castrīs dēligere», to choose a place for a camp «alicui magnō ūsuī esse», to be of great advantage to some one (lit. for great advantage to some one)

«439.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Rogāvit cūr illae cōpiae relictae essent. Respondērunt illās cōpiās esse praesidiō castrīs. 2. Caesar mīsit explōrātōrēs ad locum dēligendum castrīs. 3. Quisque exīstimāvit ipsum nōmen Caesaris magnō terrōrī barbarīs futūrum esse. 4. Prīmā lūce īdem exercitus proelium ācre commīsit, sed gravia suōrum vulnera magnae cūrae imperātōrī erant. 5. Rēx respondit amīcitiam populī Rōmānī sibi ōrnāmentō et praesidiō dēbēre esse. 6. Quis praeerat equitātuī quem auxiliō Caesarī sociī mīserant? 7. Aliquibus rēs secundae sunt summae calamitātī et rēs adversae sunt mīrō ūsuī. 8. Gallīs magnō ad pugnam erat impedīmentō quod equitātus ā dextrō cornū premēbat. 9. Memoria prīstinae virtūtis nōn minus quam metus hostium erat nostrīs magnō ūsuī. 10. Tam dēnsa erat silva ut prōgredī nōn possent.

II. 1. I advise you [1]to give up the plan [2]of making war upon the brave Gauls. 2. Do you know [3]where the cavalry has chosen a place for a camp? 3. The fear of the enemy will be of great advantage to you. 4. Cæsar left three cohorts as (for) a guard to the baggage. 5. In winter the waves of the lake are so great [4]that they are (for) a great hindrance to ships. 6. Cæsar inflicted severe[5] punishment on those who burned the public buildings.

[Footnote 1: Subjunctive of purpose. (Cf. §366.)]

[Footnote 2: Express by the genitive of the gerundive.]

[Footnote 3: Indirect question.]

[Footnote 4: A clause of result.]

[Footnote 5: «gravis, -e.»]

LESSON LXXVI

VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE GENITIVE AND ABLATIVE OF QUALITY OR DESCRIPTION

«440.» Review the word lists in §§524, 525.

«441.» Observe the English sentences

(1) A man «of» great courage, or (2) A man «with» great courage

(3) A forest «of» tall trees, or (4) A forest «with» tall trees

Each of these sentences contains a phrase of quality or description. In the first two a man is described; in the last two a forest. The descriptive phrases are introduced by the prepositions of and with.

In Latin the expression of quality or description is very similar.

The prepositions of and with suggest the genitive and the ablative respectively, and we translate the sentences above

(1) «Vir magnae virtūtis», or (2) «Vir magnā virtūte» (3) «Silva altārum arborum», or (4) «Silva altīs arboribus»

There is, however, one important difference between the Latin and the English. In English we may say, for example, a man of courage, using the descriptive phrase without an adjective modifier. In Latin, however, an adjective modifier must always be used, as above.

a. Latin makes a distinction between the use of the two cases in that numerical descriptions of measure are in the genitive and descriptions of physical characteristics are in the ablative. Other descriptive phrases may be in either case.

«442.» EXAMPLES

1. «Fossa duodecim pedum», a ditch of twelve feet.

2. «Homō magnīs pedibus et parvō capite», a man with big feet and a small head.

3. «Rēx erat vir summā audāciā» or «rēx erat vir summae audāciae», the king was a man of the greatest boldness.

«443.» RULE. «Genitive of Description.» Numerical descriptions of measure are expressed by the genitive with a modifying adjective.

«444.» RULE. «Ablative of Description.» Descriptions of physical characteristics are expressed by the ablative with a modifying adjective.

«445.» RULE. «Genitive or Ablative of Description.» Descriptions involving neither numerical statements nor physical characteristics may be expressed by either the genitive or the ablative with a modifying adjective.

«446.» IDIOMS

«Helvētiīs in animō est», the Helvetii intend, (lit. it is in mind to the Helvetians) «in mātrimōnium dare», to give in marriage «nihil posse», to have no power «fossam perdūcere», to construct a ditch (lit. to lead a ditch through)

«447.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Mīlitēs fossam decem pedum per eōrum fīnīs perdūxērunt. 2. Prīnceps Helvētiōrum, vir summae audāciae, prīncipibus gentium fīnitimārum sorōrēs in mātrimōnium dedit. 3. Eōrum amīcitiam cōnfīrmāre voluit quō facilius Rōmānīs bellum īnferret. 4. Germanī et Gallī nōn erant eiusdem gentis. 5. Omnēs ferē Germānī erant magnīs corporum vīribus.[1] 6. Gallī qui oppidum fortiter dēfendēbant saxa ingentis magnitūdinis dē mūrō iaciēbant. 7. Cum Caesar ab explōrātōribus quaereret quī illud oppidum incolerent, explōrātōrēs respondērunt eōs esse homines summā virtūte et magnō cōnsiliō. 8. Moenia vīgintī pedum ā sinistrā parte, et ā dextrā parte flūmen magnae altitūdinis oppidum dēfendēbant. 9. Cum Caesar in Galliam pervēnisset, erat rūmor Helvētiīs in animō esse iter per prōvinciam Rōmānam facere. 10. Caesar, ut eōs ab fīnibus Rōmānis prohibēret, mūnītiōnem [2]multa mīlia passuum longam fēcit.

II. 1. Cæsar was a general of much wisdom and great boldness, and very skillful in the art of war. 2. The Germans were of great size, and thought that the Romans had no power. 3. Men of the highest courage were left in the camp as (for) a guard to the baggage. 4. The king’s daughter, who was given in marriage to the chief of a neighboring state, was a woman of very beautiful appearance. 5. The soldiers will construct a ditch of nine feet around the camp. 6. A river of great width was between us and the enemy.

[Footnote 1: From «vīs». (Cf. §468.)]

[Footnote 2: Genitives and ablatives of description are adjective phrases. When we use an adverbial phrase to tell how long or how high or how deep anything is, we must use the accusative of extent. (Cf. §336.) For example, in the sentence above «multa mīlia passuum» is an adverbial phrase (accusative of extent) modifying «longam». If we should omit «longam» and say a fortification of many miles, the genitive of description (an adjective phrase) modifying «mūnītiōnem» would be used, as «mūnītiōnem multōrum mīlium passuum».]

[Illustration: GLADII]

LESSON LXXVII

REVIEW OF AGREEMENT, AND OF THE GENITIVE, DATIVE, AND ACCUSATIVE

«448.» There are four agreements:

1. That of the predicate noun or of the appositive with the noun to which it belongs (§§76, 81).

2. That of the adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle with its noun (§65).

3. That of a verb with its subject (§28).

4. That of a relative pronoun with its antecedent (§224).

«449.» The relation expressed by the «genitive» is, in general, denoted in English by the preposition of. It is used to express

{ a. As attributive (§38). 1. Possession { { b. In the predicate (§409).

2. The whole of which a part is taken (partitive genitive) (§331).

3. Quality or description (§§443, 445).

«450.» The relation expressed by the «dative» is, in general, denoted in English by the prepositions to or for when they do not imply motion through space. It is used to express

{ a. With intransitive verbs and with { transitive verbs in connection with a { direct object in the accusative (§45). 1. The indirect object { b. With special intransitive verbs (§154). { c. With verbs compounded with «ad», «ante», { «con», «dē», «in», «inter», «ob», «post», { «prae», «prō», «sub», «super» (§426).

2. The object to which the quality of an adjective is directed (§143).

3. The purpose, or end for which, often with a second dative denoting the person or thing affected (§437).

«451.» The «accusative» case corresponds, in general, to the English objective. It is used to express

1. The direct object of a transitive verb (§37).

2. The predicate accusative together with the direct object after verbs of making, choosing, falling, showing, and the like (§392).

3. The subject of the infinitive (§214).

4. The object of prepositions that do not govern the ablative (§340).

5. The duration of time and the extent of space (§336).

6. The place to which (§§263, 266).

«452.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Mīlitēs quōs vīdimus dīxērunt imperium bellī esse Caesaris imperātōris. 2. Helvētiī statuērunt quam[1] maximum numerum equōrum et carrōrum cōgere. 3. Tōtīus Galliae Helvētiī plūrimum valuērunt. 4. Multās hōrās ācriter pugnātum est neque quisquam poterat vidēre hostem fugientem. 5. Virī summae virtūtis hostīs decem mīlia passuum īnsecūtī sunt. 6. Caesar populō Rōmānō persuāsit ut sē cōnsulem creāret. 7. Victōria exercitūs erat semper imperātōrī grātissima. 8. Trīduum iter fēcērunt et Genāvam, in oppidum[2] hostium, pervēnērunt. 9. Caesar audīvit Germānōs bellum Gallīs intulisse. 10. Magnō ūsuī mīlitibus Caesaris erat quod priōribus proeliīs sēsē exercuerant.

II. 1. One[3] of the king’s sons and many of his men were captured. 2. There was no one who wished[4] to appoint her queen. 3. The grain supply was always a care (for a care) to Cæsar, the general. 4. I think that the camp is ten miles distant. 5. We marched for three hours through a very dense forest. 6. The plan [5]of making war upon the allies was not pleasing to the king. 7. When he came to the hill he fortified it [6]by a twelve-foot wall.

[Footnote 1: What is the force of «quam» with superlatives?]

[Footnote 2: «urbs» or «oppidum», appositive to a name of a town, takes a preposition.]

[Footnote 3: What construction is used with numerals in preference to the partitive genitive?]

[Footnote 4: What mood? (Cf. §390.)]

[Footnote 5: Use the gerund or gerundive.]

[Footnote 6: Latin, by a wall of twelve feet.]

LESSON LXXVIII

REVIEW OF THE ABLATIVE

«453.» The relations of the ablative are, in general, expressed in English by the prepositions with (or by), from (or by), and in (or at). The constructions growing out of these meanings are

I. Ablative rendered with (or by): 1. Cause (§102) 2. Means (§103) 3. Accompaniment (§104) 4. Manner (§105) 5. Measure of difference (§317) 6. With a participle (ablative absolute) (§381) 7. Description or quality (§§444, 445) 8. Specification (§398)

II. Ablative rendered from (or by): 1. Place from which (§§179, 264) 2. Ablative of separation (§180) 3. Personal agent with a passive verb (§181) 4. Comparison without «quam» (§309)

III. Ablative rendered in (or at): 1. Place at or in which (§§265, 266) 2. Time when or within which (§275)

«454.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Gallī locīs superiōribus occupātīs itinere exercitum prohibēre cōnantur. 2. Omnēs oppidānī ex oppidō ēgressī salūtem fugā petere incēpērunt. 3. Caesar docet sē mīlitum vītam suā salūte habēre multō cāriōrem. 4. Cum celerius omnium opīniōne pervēnisset, hostēs ad eum obsidēs mīsērunt 5. Vīcus in valle positus montibus altissimīs undique continētur. 6. Plūrimum inter Gallōs haec gēns et virtūte et hominum numerō valēbat. 7. Secundā vigiliā nūllō certō ōrdine neque imperiō ē castrīs ēgressī sunt. 8. Duābus legiōnibus Genāvae relictīs, proximō diē cum reliquīs domum profectus est. 9. Erant itinera duo quibus itineribus Helvētiī domō exīre possent. 10. Rēx erat summā audāciā et magnā apud populum potentiā. 11. Gallī timōre servitūtis commōtī bellum parābant. 12. Caesar monet lēgātōs ut contineant militēs, nē studiō pugnandī aut spē praedae longius[1] prōgrediantur. 13. Bellum ācerrimum ā Caesare in Gallōs gestum est.

II. 1. The lieutenant after having seized the mountain restrained his (men) from battle. 2. All the Gauls differ from each other in laws. 3. This tribe is much braver than the rest. 4. This road is [2]ten miles shorter than that. 5. In summer Cæsar carried on war in Gaul, in winter he returned to Italy. 6. At midnight the general set out from the camp with three legions. 7. I fear that you cannot protect[3] yourself from these enemies. 8. [4]After this battle was finished peace was made by all the Gauls.

[Footnote 1: «longius», too far. (Cf. §305.)]

[Footnote 2: Latin, by ten thousands of paces.]

[Footnote 3: «dēfendere».]

[Footnote 4: Ablative absolute.]

LESSON LXXIX

REVIEW OF THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE, THE INFINITIVE, AND THE SUBJUNCTIVE

«455.» The gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns (§§402, 406.1).

«456.» The gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object, excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual (§406.2).

«457.» The infinitive is used:

I. As in English.

a. As subject or predicate nominative (§216).

b. To complete the predicate with verbs of incomplete predication (complementary infinitive) (§215).

c. As object with subject accusative after verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like (§213).

II. In the principal sentence of an indirect statement after verbs of saying and mental action. The subject is in the accusative (§§416, 418, 419).

«458.» The subjunctive is used:

1. To denote purpose (§§349, 366, 372).

2. To denote consequence or result (§§385, 386).

3. In relative clauses of characteristic or description (§390).

4. In «cum» clauses of time, cause, and concession (§396).

5. In indirect questions (§432).

«459.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Caesar, cum pervēnisset, militēs hortābātur nē cōnsilium oppidī capiendi omitterent. 2. Rēx, castrīs prope oppidum positīs, mīsit explōrātōrēs quī cognōscerent ubi exercitus Rōmanus esset. 3. Nēmo relinquēbātur quī arma ferre posset. 4. Nūntiī vīdērunt ingentem armōrum multitudinem dē mūrō in fossani iactam esse. 5. Dux suōs trānsīre flūmen iussit. Trānsīre autem hoc flūmen erat difficillimum. 6. Rōmānī cum hanc calamitātem molestē ferrant, tamen terga vertere recūsāvērunt. 7. Hōc rūmōre audītō, tantus terror omnium animōs occupāvit ut nē fortissimī quidem proelium committere vellent. 8. Erant quī putārent tempus annī idōneum nōn esse itinerī faciendō. 9. Tam ācriter ab utraque parte pugnābātur ut multa mīlia hominum occīderentur. 10. Quid timēs? Timeō nē Rōmānīs in animō sit tōtam Galliam superāre et nōbīs iniūriās inferre.

II. 1. Do you not see who is standing on the wall? 2. We hear that the plan of taking the town has been given up. 3. Since the Germans thought that the Romans could not cross the Rhine, Cæsar ordered a bridge to be made. 4. When the bridge was finished, the savages were so terrified that they hid themselves. 5. They feared that Cæsar would pursue them. 6. Cæsar [1]asked the traders what the size of the island was. 7. The traders advised him not [2]to cross the sea. 8. He sent scouts [3]to choose a place for a camp.

[Footnote 1: «quaerere ab».]

[Footnote 2: Not infinitive.]

[Footnote 3: Use the gerundive with «ad».]

INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS

«How to Translate.» You have already had considerable practice in translating simple Latin, and have learned that the guide to the meaning lies in the endings of the words. If these are neglected, no skill can make sense of the Latin. If they are carefully noted and accurately translated, not many difficulties remain. Observe the following suggestions:

1. Read the Latin sentence through to the end, noting endings of nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.

2. Read it again and see if any of the words you know are nominatives or accusatives. This will often give you what may be called the backbone of the sentence; that is, subject, verb, and object.

3. Look up the words you do not know, and determine their use in the sentence from their endings.

4. If you cannot yet translate the sentence, put down the English meanings of all the words in the same order as the Latin words. You will then generally see through the meaning of the sentence.

5. Be careful to

a. Translate adjectives with the nouns to which they belong.

b. Translate together prepositions and the nouns which they govern.

c. Translate adverbs with the words that they modify.

d. Make sense. If you do not make sense, you have made a mistake. One mistake will spoil a whole sentence.

6. When the sentence is correctly translated, read the Latin over again, and try to understand it as Latin, without thinking of the English translation.

«The Parts of a Sentence.» You will now meet somewhat longer sentences than you have had before. To assist in translating them, remember, first of all, that every sentence conveys a meaning and either tells us something, asks a question, or gives a command. Every sentence must have a subject and a verb, and the verb may always have an adverb, and, if transitive, will have a direct object.

However long a sentence is, you will usually be able to recognize its subject, verb, and object or predicate complement without any difficulty. These will give you the leading thought, and they must never be lost sight of while making out the rest of the sentence. The chief difficulty in translating arises from the fact that instead of a single adjective, adverb, or noun, we often have a phrase or a clause taking the place of one of these; for Latin, like English, has adjective, adverbial, and substantive clauses and phrases. For example, in the sentence The idle boy does not study, the word idle is an adjective. In The boy wasting his time does not study, the words wasting his time form an adjective phrase modifying boy. In the sentence The boy who wastes his time does not study, the words who wastes his time form an adjective clause modifying boy, and the sentence is complex. These sentences would show the same structure in Latin.

In translating, it is important to keep the parts of a phrase and the parts of a clause together and not let them become confused with the principal sentence. To distinguish between the subordinate clauses and the principal sentence is of the first importance, and is not difficult if you remember that a clause regularly contains a word that marks it as a clause and that this word usually stands first. These words join clauses to the words they depend on, and are called subordinate conjunctions. They are not very numerous, and you will soon learn to recognize them. In Latin they are the equivalents for such words as when, while, since, because, if, before, after, though, in order that, that, etc. Form the habit of memorizing the Latin subordinate conjunctions as you meet them, and of noting carefully the mood of the verb in the clauses which they introduce.

[Illustration: HERCULES]

THE LABORS OF HERCULES

Hercules, a Greek hero celebrated for his great strength, was pursued throughout his life by the hatred of Juno. While yet an infant he strangled some serpents sent by the goddess to destroy him. During his boyhood and youth he performed various marvelous feats of strength, and on reaching manhood he succeeded in delivering the Thebans from the oppression of the Minyæ. In a fit of madness, sent upon him by Juno, he slew his own children; and, on consulting the Delphic oracle as to how he should cleanse himself from this crime, he was ordered to submit himself for twelve years to Eurystheus, king of Tiryns, and to perform whatever tasks were appointed him. Hercules obeyed the oracle, and during the twelve years of his servitude accomplished twelve extraordinary feats known as the Labors of Hercules. His death was caused, unintentionally, by his wife Deiani´ra. Hercules had shot with his poisoned arrows a centaur named Nessus, who had insulted Deianira. Nessus, before he died, gave some of his blood to Deianira, and told her it would act as a charm to secure her husband’s love. Some time after, Deianira, wishing to try the charm, soaked one of her husband’s garments in the blood, not knowing that it was poisoned. Hercules put on the robe, and, after suffering terrible torments, died, or was carried off by his father Jupiter.

[Illustration: HERCULES ET SERPENTES]

LIII.[1] THE INFANT HERCULES AND THE SERPENTS

Dī[2] grave supplicium sūmmit de malīs, sed iī quī lēgibus[3] deōrum pārent, etiam post mortem cūrantur. Illa vīta dīs[2] erat grātissima quae hominibus miserīs ūtilissima fuerat. Omnium autem praemiōrum summum erat immortālitās. Illud praemium Herculī datum est.

Herculis pater fuit Iuppiter, māter Alcmēna, et omnium hominum validissimus fuisse dīcitur. Sed Iūnō, rēgīna deōrum, eum, adhūc īnfantem, interficere studēbat; nam eī[1] et[2] Herculēs et Alcmēna erant invīsī. Itaque mīsit duās serpentīs, utramque saevissimam, quae mediā nocte domum[3] Alcmēnae vēnērunt. Ibi Herculēs, cum frātre suō, nōn in lectulō sed in scūtō ingentī dormiēbat. Iam audācēs serpentēs adpropinquāverant, iam scūtum movēbant. Tum frāter, terrōre commōtus, magnā vōce mātrem vocāvit, sed Herculēs ipse, fortior quam frāter, statim ingentīs serpentīs manibus suīs rapuit et interfēcit.

[Footnote 1: This number refers to the lesson after which the selection may be read.]

[Footnote 2: «Dī» and «dīs» are from «deus». Cf. §468.]

[Footnote 3: «lēgibus», §501.14.]

[Footnote 1: «eī», to her, referring to Juno.]

[Footnote 2: «et ... et», both ... and.]

[Footnote 3: «domum», §501.20.]

LIV. HERCULES CONQUERS THE MINYÆ

Herculēs ā puerō[1] corpus suum gravissimīs et difficillimīs labōribus exercēbat et hōc modō vīrēs[2] suās cōnfirmāvit. Iam adulēscēns Thēbīs[3] habitābat. Ibi Creōn quīdam erat rēx. Minyae, gēns validissima, erant fīnitimī Thēbānīs, et, quia ōlim Thēbānōs vīcerant, quotannīs lēgātōs mittēbant et vectīgal postulābant. Herculēs autem cōnstituit cīvīs suōs hōc vectīgālī līberāre et dixit rēgī, “Dā mihi exercitum tuum et ego hōs superbōs hostīs superābō.” Hanc condiciōnem rēx nōn recūsāvit, et Herculēs nūntiōs in omnīs partis dīmīsit et cōpiās coēgit.[4] Tum tempore opportūnissimō proelium cum Minyīs commīsit. Diū pugnātum est, sed dēnique illī impetum Thēbānōrum sustinēre nōn potuērunt et terga vertērunt fugamque cēpērunt.

[Footnote 1: «ā puerō», from boyhood.]

[Footnote 2: «virēs», from «vīs». Cf. §468.]

[Footnote 3: «Thēbīs», §501.36.1.]

[Footnote 4: «coēgit», from «cōgō».]

HE COMMITS A CRIME AND GOES TO THE DELPHIAN ORACLE TO SEEK EXPIATION

Post hoc proelium Creōn rēx, tantā victōriā laetus, fīliam suam Herculī in mātrimōnium dedit. Thēbīs Herculēs cum uxōre suā diū vīvēbat et ab omnibus magnopere amābātur; sed post multōs annōs subitō [1]in furōrem incidit et ipse suā manū līberōs suōs interfēcit. Post breve tempus [2]ad sānitātem reductus tantum scelus expiāre cupiēbat et cōnstituit ad ōrāculum Delphicum iter facere. Hoc autem ōrāculum erat omnium clārissimum. Ibi sedēbat fēmina quaedam quae Pȳthia appellābātur. Ea cōnsilium dabat iīs quī ad ōrāculum veniēbant.

[Footnote 1: «in furōrem incidit», went mad.]

[Footnote 2: «ad sānitātem reductus», lit. led back to sanity. What in good English?]

[Illustration: HERCULES LEONEM SUPERAT]

LV. HERCULES BECOMES SUBJECT TO EURYSTHEUS[1] · HE STRANGLES THE NEME´AN LION

Itaque Herculēs Pȳthiae tōtam rem dēmonstrāvit nec scelus suum abdidit. Ubi iam Herculēs fīnem fēcit, Pȳthia iussit eum ad urbem Tīryntha[2] discēdere et ibi rēgī Eurystheō sēsē committere. Quae[3] ubi audīvit, Herculēs ad illam urbem statim contendit et Eurystheō sē in servitūtem trādidit et dīxit, “Quid prīmum, Ō rēx, mē facere iubēs?” Eurystheus, quī perterrēbātur vī et corpore ingentī Herculis et eum occidī[4] studēbat, ita respondit: “Audī, Herculēs! Multa mira[5] nārrantur dē leōne saevissimō quī hōc tempore in valle Nemaeā omnia vāstat. Iubeō tē, virōrum omnium fortissimum, illō mōnstrō hominēs līberāre.” Haec verba Herculī maximē placuērunt. “Properābo,” inquit, “et parēbō imperiō[6] tuō.” Tum in silvās in quibus leō habitābat statim iter fēcit. Mox feram vīdit et plūrīs impetūs fēcit; frūstrā tamen, quod neque sagittīs neque ūllō aliō tēlō mōnstrum vulnerāre potuit. Dēnique Herculēs saevum leōnem suīs ingentibus bracchiīs rapuit et faucīs eius omnibus vīribus compressit. Hōc modō brevī tempore eum interfēcit. Tum corpus leōnis ad oppidum in umerīs reportāvit et pellem posteā prō[7] veste gerēbat. Omnēs autem quō eam regiōnem incolēbant, ubi fāmam dē morte leōnis ingentis accēpērunt, erant laetissimī et Herculem laudābant verbīs amplissimīs.

[Footnote 1: «Eu-rys´theus» (pronounced U-ris´thūs) was king of Tī´ryns, a Grecian city, whose foundation goes back to prehistoric times.]

[Footnote 2: «Tīryntha», the acc. case of «Tīryns», a Greek noun.]

[Footnote 3: «Quae», obj. of «audīvit». It is placed first to make a close connection with the preceding sentence. This is called a connecting relative.]

[Footnote 4: «occīdī», pres. pass. infin.]

[Footnote 5: «mīra», marvelous things, the adj. being used as a noun. Cf. «omnia», in the next line.]

[Footnote 6: «imperiō», §501.14.]

[Footnote 7: «prō», for, instead of.]

LVI. SLAYING THE LERNE´AN HYDRA

Deinde Herculēs ab Eurystheō iussus est Hydram occīdere. Itaque cum amīcō Iolāō[1] contendit ad palūdem Lernaeam ubi Hydra incolēbat. Hoc autem mōnstrum erat serpēns ingēns quae novem capita habēbat. Mox is mōnstrum repperit et summō[2] cum perīculō collum eius sinistrā manū rapuit et tenuit. Tum dextrā manū capita novem abscīdere incēpit, sed frūstrā labōrābat, quod quotiēns hoc fēcerat totiēns alia nova capita vidēbat. Quod[3] ubi vīdit, statuit capita ignī cremāre. Hōc modō octō capita dēlēvit, sed extrēmum caput vulnerārī nōn potuit, quod erat immortāle. Itaque illud sub ingentī saxō Herculēs posuit et ita victōriam reportāvit.

[Footnote 1: «Iolāō», abl. of I-o-lā´us, the hero’s best friend.]

[Footnote 2: Note the emphatic position of this adjective.]

[Footnote 3: «Quod ubi», when he saw this, another instance of the connecting relative. Cf. p. 199, l. 3.]

LVII. THE ARCADIAN STAG AND THE ERYMANTHIAN BOAR

Postquam Eurystheō mors Hydrae nuntiata est, summus terror animum eius occupavit. Itaque iussit Herculem capere et ad sē reportāre cervum quendam; nam minimē cupīvit tantum virum in rēgnō suō tenēre. Hie autem cervus dīcēbātur aurea cornua et pedēs multō[1] celeriōrēs ventō[2] habēre. Prīmum Herculēs vestīgia animālis petīvit, deinde, ubi cervum ipsum vīdit, omnibus vīribus currere incēpit. Per plūrimōs diēs contendit nec noctū cessāvit. Dēnique postquam per tōtum annum cucurrerat--ita dīcitur--cervum iam dēfessum cēpit et ad Eurystheum portāvit.

Tum vērō iussus est Herculēs aprum quendam capere quī illō tempore agrōs Erymanthiōs vāstābat et hominēs illīus locī magnopere perterrēbat. Herculēs laetē negōtium suscēpit et in Arcadiam celeriter sē recēpit. Ibi mox aprum repperit. Ille autem; simul atque Herculem vīdit, statim quam[3] celerrimē fūgit et metū perterritus in fossam altam sēsē abdidit. Herculēs tamen summā cum difficultāte eum extrāxit, nec aper ūllō modō sēsē līberāre potuit, et vīvus ad Eurystheum portātus est.

[Footnote 1: «multō», §501.27.]

[Footnote 2: «ventō», §501.34.]

[Footnote 3: «quam». What is the force of «quam» with a superlative?]

LVIII. HERCULES CLEANS THE AUGE´AN STABLES AND KILLS THE STYMPHALIAN BIRDS

Deinde Eurystheus Herculī hunc labōrem multō graviōrem imperāvit. Augēās[1] quīdam, quī illō tempore rēgnum Ēlidis[2] obtinēbat, tria mīlia boum[3] habēbat. Hī[4] ingentī stabulō continēbantur. Hoc stabulum, quod per trīgintā annōs nōn pūrgātum erat, Herculēs intrā spatium ūnīus diēī pūrgāre iussus est. llle negōtium alacriter suscēpit, et prīmum labōre gravissimō maximam fossam fōdit per quam flūminis aquam dē montibus ad mūrum stabulī dūxit. Tum partem parvam mūrī dēlēvit et aquam in stabulum immīsit. Hōc modō fīnm operis fēcit ūnō diē facillimē.

Post paucōs diēs Herculēs ad oppidum Stymphālum iter fēcit; nam Eurystheus iusserat eum avis Stymphālidēs occīdere. Hae avēs rōstra ferrea habēbant et hominēs miserōs dēvorābant. Ille, postquam ad locum pervēnit, lacum vīdit in quō avēs incolēbant. Nūllō tamen modō Herculēs avibus adpropinquāre potuit; lacus enim nōn ex aquā sed ē līmō cōnstitit.[5] Dēnique autem avēs [6]dē aliquā causā perterritae in aurās volāvērunt et magna pars eārum sagittīs Herculis occīsa est.

[Footnote 1: «Augēās», pronounced in English Aw-jē´as.]

[Footnote 2: «Ēlidis», gen. case of «Ēlis», a district of Greece.]

[Footnote 3: «boum», gen. plur. of «bōs». For construction see §501.11.]

[Footnote 4: «ingentī stabulō», abl. of means, but in our idiom we should say in a huge stable.]

[Footnote 5: «cōnstitit», from «consto».]

[Footnote 6: «dē aliquā causā perterritae», frightened for some reason.]

[Illustration: HERCULES ET TAURUS]

LIX. HERCULES CAPTURES THE CRETAN BULL AND CARRIES HIM LIVING TO EURYSTHEUS

Tum Eurystheus iussit Herculem portāre vīvum ex īnsulā Crētā taurum quendam saevissimum. Ille igitur nāvem cōnscendit--nam ventus erat idōneus--atque statim solvit. Postquam trīduum nāvigavit, incolumis īnsulae adpropinquāvit. Deinde, postquam omnia parāta sunt, contendit ad eam regiōnem quam taurus vexābat. Mox taurum vīdit ac sine ūllō metū cornua eius corripuit. Tum ingentī labōre mōnstrum ad nāvem trāxit atque cum hāc praedā ex īnsulā discessit.

THE FLESH-EATING HORSES OF DIOME´DES

Postquam ex īnsulā Crētā domum pervēnit, Hercules ab Eurystheō in Thrāciam missus est. Ibi Diomēdēs quīdam, vir saevissimus, rēgnum obtinēbat et omnīs ā fīnibus suīs prohibēbat. Herculēs iussus erat equōs Diomedis rapere et ad Eurystheum dūcere. Hī autem equī hominēs miserrimōs dēvorābant dē quibus rēx supplicium sūmere cupiēbat. Herculēs ubi pervēnit, prīmum equōs ā rēge postulāvit, sed rēx eōs dēdere recūsāvit. Deinde ille īrā commōtus rēgem occīdit et corpus eius equīs trādidit. Itaque is quī anteā multōs necāverat, ipse eōdem suppliciō necātus est. Et equī, nūper saevissima animālia, postquam dominī suī corpus dēvorāvērunt, mānsuētī erant.

LX. THE BELT OF HIPPOL´YTE, QUEEN OF THE AMAZONS

Gēns Amāzonum[1] dīcitur[2] omnīnō ex mulieribus fuisse. Hae cum virīs proelium committere nōn verēbantur. Hippolytē, Amāzonum rēgīna, balteum habuit pulcherrimum. Hunc balteum possidēre fīlia Eurystheī vehementer cupiēbat. Itaque Eurystheus iussit Herculem impetum in Amāzonēs facere. Ille multīs cum cōpiīs nāvem cōnscendīt et paucis diēbus in Amāzonum fīnīs pervēnit, ac balteum postulāvit. Eum trādere ipsa Hipporytē quidem cupīvit; reliquīs tamen Amazonibus[3] persuādēre nōn potuit. Postrīdiē Herculēs proelium commīsit. Multās hōrās utrimque quam fortissimē pugnātum est Dēnique tamen mulieres terga vertērunt et fugā salūtem petiērunt. Multae autem captae sunt, in quō numerō erat ipsa Hippolytē. Herculēs postquam balteum accēpit, omnibus captīvīs lībertātem dedit.

[Footnote 1: A fabled tribe of warlike women living in Asia Minor.]

[Footnote 2: «omnīnō», etc., to have consisted entirely of women.]

[Footnote 3: «Amāzonibus», §501.14.]

[Illustration: HERCULES ET CERBERUS]

THE DESCENT TO HADES AND THE DOG CER´BERUS

Iamque ūnus modo ē duodecim labōribus relinquēbātur sed inter omnīs hic erat difficillimus. Iussus est enim canem Cerberum[4] ex Orcō in lūcem trahere. Ex Orcō autem nēmō anteā reverterat. Praetereā Cerberus erat mōnstrum maximē horribile et tria capita habēbat. Herculēs postquam imperia Eurystheī accēpit, statim profectus est et in Orcum dēscendit. Ibi vērō nōn sine summō periculō Cerberum manibus rapuit et ingentī cum labōre ex Orcō in lūcem et adurbem Eurystheī trāxit.

Sic duodecim laborēs illī[5] intrā duodecim annōs cōnfectī sunt. Dēmum post longam vītam Herculēs ā deīs receptus est et Iuppiter fīliō suō dedit immortālitātem.

[Footnote 4: The dog Cerberus guarded the gate of Orcus, the abode of the dead.]

[Footnote 5: «illī», those famous.]

[Illustration: PUERI ROMANI]

P. CORNELIUS LENTULUS: THE STORY OF A ROMAN BOY[1]

LXI. PUBLIUS IS BORN NEAR POMPE´II

P. Cornēlius Lentulus,[2] adulēscēns Rōmānus, amplissimā familiā[3] nātus est; nam pater eius, Mārcus, erat dux perītissimus, cuius virtūte[4] et cōnsiliō multae victōriae reportātae erant; atque mater eius, lūlia, ā clārissimīs maiōribus orta est. Nōn vērō in urbe sed rūrī[5] Pūblius nātus est, et cum mātre habitābat in vīllā quae in maris lītore et sub radīcibus magnī montis sita erat. Mōns autem erat Vesuvius et parva urbs Pompēiī octō mīlia[6] passuum[7] aberat. In Italiā antīquā erant plūrimae quidem villae et pulchrae, sed inter hās omnīs nūlla erat pulchrior quam villa Mārcī Iūliaeque. Frōns vīllae mūrō a maris fluctibus mūniēbātur. Hinc mare et lītora et īnsulae longē lātēque cōnspicī[8] ac saepe nāvēs longae et onerāriae poterant. Ā tergō et ab utrōque latere agrī ferācissimī patēbant. Undique erat magna variōrum flōrum cōpia et multa ingentium arborum genera quae aestāte[9] umbram dēfessīs agricolīs grātissimam adferēbant. Praetereā erant[10] in agrīs stabulīsque multa animālium genera, nōn sōlum equī et bovēs sed etiam rārae avēs. Etiam erat[10] magna piscīna plēna piscium; nam Rōmānī piscīs dīligenter colēbant.

[Footnote 1: This story is fiction with certain historical facts in Cæsar’s career as a setting. However, the events chronicled might have happened, and no doubt did happen to many a Roman youth.]

[Footnote 2: A Roman had three names, as, «Pūblius» (given name), «Cornēlius» (name of the gēns or clan), «Lentulus» (family name).]

[Footnote 3: Abl. of source, which is akin to the abl. of separation (§501.32).]

[Footnote 4: «virtūte», §501.24.]

[Footnote 5: «rūrī», §501.36.1.]

[Footnote 6: «mīlia», §501.21.]

[Footnote 7: «passuum», §501.11.]

[Footnote 8: «cōnspicī», infin. with poterant, §215. Consult the map of Italy for the approximate location of the villa.]

[Footnote 9: «aestāte», §501.35.]

[Footnote 10: How are the forms of «sum» translated when they precede the subject?]

[Illustration: CASA ROMANA]

LXII. HIS LIFE ON THE FARM

Huius vīllae Dāvus, servus Mārcī, est vīlicus[1] et cum Lesbiā uxōre omnia cūrat. Vīlicus et uxor in casā humilī, mediīs in agrīs sitā, habitant. Ā prīmā lūce ūsque ad vesperum sē[2] gravibus labōribus exercent ut omnī rēs bene gerant.[3] Plūrima enim sunt officia Dāvī et Lesbiae. Vīlicus servōs regit nē tardī sint[3]; mittit aliōs quī agrōs arent,[3] aliōs quī hortōs inrigent,[3] et opera in[4] tōtum diem impōnit. Lesbia autem omnibus vestīmenta parat, cibum coquit, pānem facit.

Nōn longē ab hōrum casā et in summō colle situm surgēbat domicilium ipsīus dominī dominaeque amplissimum. Ibi plūrīs annōs[5] Pūblius cum mātre vītam fēlīcem agēbat; nam pater eius, Mārcus, in terrīs longinquīs gravia reī pūblicae bella gerēbat nec domum[6] revertī poterat. Neque puerō quidem molestum est rūrī[7] vīvere. Eum multae rēs dēlectant. Magnopere amat silvās, agrōs, equōs, bovēs, gallīnās, avīs, reliquaque animālia. Saepe plūrīs hōrās[8] ad mare sedet quō[9] melius fluctūs et nāvīs spectet. Nec omnīnō sine comitibus erat, quod Lȳdia, Dāvī fīlia, quae erat eiusdem aetātis, cum eō adhūc infante lūdēbat, inter quōs cum annīs amīcitia crēscēbat. Lȳdia nūllum alium ducem dēligēbat et Pūblius ab puellae latere rārō discēdēbat. Itaque sub clārō Italiae sōle Pūblius et Lȳdia, amīcī fidēlissimī, per campōs collīsque cotīdiē vagābantur. Modo in silvā fīnitimā lūdebant ubi Pūblius sagittīs[10] celeribus avis dēiciēbat et Lȳdia corōnīs variōrum flōrum comās suās ōrnābat; modo aquam et cibum portābant ad Dāvum servōsque dēfessōs quī agrōs colēbant: modo in casā parvā aut hōrās lactās in lūdō cōnsūmēbant aut auxilium dabant Lesbiae, quae cibum virō et servīs parābat vel aliās rēs domesticās agēbat.

[Footnote 1: The «vīlicus» was a slave who acted as overseer of a farm. He directed the farming operations and the sale of the produce.]

[Footnote 2: «se», reflexive pron., object of «exercent».]

[Footnote 3: For the construction, see §501.40.]

[Footnote 4: «in», for.]

[Footnote 5: «annōs», §501.21.]

[Footnote 6: «domum», §501.20.]

[Footnote 7: «rūrī», §501.36.1.]

[Footnote 8: «hōrās», cf. «annōs», line 17.]

[Footnote 9: «quō ... spectet», §§349, 350.]

[Footnote 10: «sagittis», §501.24.]

LXIII. MARCUS LENTULUS, THE FATHER OF PUBLIUS, IS SHIPWRECKED · JULIA RECEIVES A LETTER FROM HIM

Iam Pūblius[1] decem annōs habēbat cum M.Cornēlius Lentulus, pater eius, quī quīnque annōs[2] grave bellum in Asiā gerēbat, non sine glōriā domum[3] revertēbātur. Namque multa secunda proelia fēcerat, maximās hostium cōpiās dēlēverat, multās urbīs populo[4] Rōmānō inimīcās cēperat. Primum nūntius pervēnit quī ā Lentulō[5] missus erat[6] ut profectiōnem suam nūntiāret. Deinde plūrīs diēs[7] reditum virī optimī māter fīliusque exspectābant et animīs[8] sollicitis deōs immortālīs frūstrā colēbant. Tum dēmum hās litterās summo cum gaudiō accēpērunt:

[9]“Mārcus Iūliae suac salūtem dīcit. Sī valēs, bene est; ego valeō. Ex Graeciā, quō[10] praeter spem et opīniōnem hodiē pervēnī, hās litterās ad tē scribō. Namque nāvis nostra frācta est; nōs autem--[11]dīs est gratia--incolumes sumus. Ex Asiae[12] portū nāvem lēnī ventō solvimus. Postquam[13] altum mare tenuimus [14]nec iam ūllae terrae appāruērunt, caelum undique et undique fluctūs, subitō magna tempestās coorta est et nāvem vehementissimē adflīxit. Ventīs fluctibusque adflīctātī[15] nec sōlem discernere nec cursum tenēre poterāmus et omnia praesentem mortem intentābant. Trīs diēs[16] et trīs noctīs[16] sine rēmīs vēlīsque agimur. Quārtō diē[17] prīmum terra vīsa est et violenter in saxa, quae nōn longē ā lītore aberant, dēiectī sumus. Tum vērō maiōra perīcula timēbāmus; sed nauta quīdam, vir fortissimus, ex nāve in fluctūs īrātōs dēsiluit [18]ut fūnem ad lītus portāret; quam rem summō labōre vix effēcit. Ita omnēs servātī sumus. Grātiās igitur et honōrem Neptūnō dēbēmus, quī deus nōs ē perīculō ēripuit. Nunc Athēnīs[19] sum, quō cōnfūgī ut mihi paucās hōrās ad quiētem darem.[20] Quam prīmum autem aliam nāvem condūcam ut iter ad Italiam reliquum cōnficiam et domum[21] ad meōs cārōs revertar. Salūtā nostrum Pūblium amīcissimē et valētūdinem tuam cūrā dīligenter. [22]Kalendīs Mārtiīs.”

[Footnote 1: was ten years old.]

[Footnote 2: «annōs», §501.21.]

[Footnote 4: «populō», dat. with inimīcās, cf. §501.16.]

[Footnote 5: «Lentulō», §501.33.]

[Footnote 6: «ut ... nūntiāret», §501.40.]

[Footnote 7: «diēs», cf. annōs, 1. 9.]

[Footnote 8: «animīs», abl. of manner. Do you see one in line 15?]

[Footnote 9: This is the usual form for the beginning of a Latin letter. First we have the greeting, and then the expression Sī valēs, etc. The date of the letter is usually given at the end, and also the place of writing, if not previously mentioned in the letter.]

[Footnote 10: «quō», where.]

[Footnote 11: «dīs est grātia», thank God, in our idiom.]

[Footnote 12: Asia refers to the Roman province of that name in Asia Minor.]

[Footnote 13: «altum mare tenuimus», we were well out to sea.]

[Footnote 14: «nec iam», and no longer.]

[Footnote 15: «adflīctātī», perf. passive part. tossed about.]

[Footnote 16: What construction?]

[Footnote 17: «diē», §501.35.]

[Footnote 18: «ut ... portāret», §501.40.]

[Footnote 19: «Athēnīs», §501.36.1.]

[Footnote 20: «darem», cf. «portāret», l. 6.]

[Footnote 21: Why not «ad domum»?]

[Footnote 22: «Kalendīs Mārtiīs», the Calends or first of March; abl. of time, giving the date of the letter.]

LXIV. LENTULUS REACHES HOME · PUBLIUS VISITS POMPEII WITH HIS FATHER

Post paucōs diēs nāvis M. Cornēlī Lentulī portum Mīsēnī[1] petiit, quī portus nōn longē ā Pompēiīs situs est; quō in portū classis Rōmānā pōnēbātur et ad pugnās nāvālīs ōrnābātur. Ibi nāvēs omnium generum cōnspicī poterant. Iamque incrēdibilī celeritāte nāvis longa quā Lentulus vehēbātur lītorī adpropinquāvit; nam nōn sōlum ventō sed etiam rēmīs impellēbātur. In altā puppe stābat gubernātor et nōn procul aliquī mīlitēs Rōmānī cum armīs splendidīs, inter quōs clārissimus erat Lentulus. Deinde servī rēmīs contendere cessāvērunt[2]; nautae vēlum contrāxērunt et ancorās iēcērunt. Lentulus statim ē nāvī ēgressus est et[3] ad villam suam properāvit. Eum Iūlia, Pūblius, tōtaque familia excēpērunt. [4]Quī complexūs, quanta gaudia fuērunt!

Postrīdiē eius diēī Lentulus fīliō suō dīxit, “Venī, mī Pūblī, mēcum. Pompēiōs iter hodiē faciam. Māter tua suādet[5] ut frūctūs et cibāria emam. Namque plūrīs amīcōs ad cēnam vocāvimus et multīs rēbus[6] egēmus. Ea hortātur ut quam prīmum proficīscāmur.” “Libenter, mī pater,” inquit Pūblius. “Tēcum esse mihi semper est grātum; nec Pompēiōs umquam vīdī. Sine morā proficīscī parātus sum.” Tum celeriter currum cōnscendērunt et ad urbis mūrōs vectī sunt. Stabiānā portā[7] urbem ingressī sunt. Pūblius strātās viās mīrātur et saxa altiōra quae in mediō disposita erant et altās orbitās quās rotae inter haec saxa fēcerant. Etiam strepitum mīrātur, multitūdinem, carrōs, fontīs, domōs, tabernās, forum[8] cum statuīs, templīs, reliquīsque aedificiīs pūblicīs.

[Footnote 1: Misenum had an excellent harbor, and under the emperor Augustus became the chief naval station of the Roman fleet. See map of Italy.]

[Footnote 2: Why is the infinitive used with «cessāvērunt»?]

[Footnote 3: See Plate I, Frontispiece.]

[Footnote 4: Observe that these words are exclamatory.]

[Footnote 5: What construction follows «suādeō»? §501.41.]

[Footnote 6: «rēbus», §501.32.]

[Footnote 7: This is the abl. of the way by which motion takes place, sometimes called the abl. of route. The construction comes under the general head of the abl. of means. For the scene here described, see Plate II, p. 53, and notice especially the stepping-stones for crossing the street («saxa quae in mediō disposita erant»).]

[Footnote 8: The forum of Pompeii was surrounded by temples, public halls, and markets of various sorts. Locate Pompeii on the map.]

LXV. A DAY AT POMPEII

Apud forum ē currū dēscendērunt et Lentulus dīxit, “Hīc sunt multa tabernārum genera, mī Pūblī. Ecce, trāns viam est popīna! [1]Hoc genus tabernārum cibāria vēndit. Frūctūs quoque ante iānuam stant. Ibi cibāria mea emam.” “Optimē,” respondit Pūblius. “At ubi, mī pater, crūstula emere possumus? Namque māter nōbīs imperāvit [2]ut haec quoque parārēmus. Timeō ut[3] ista popīna vēndat crūstula.” “Bene dīcis,” inquit Lentulus. “At nōnne vidēs illum fontem ā dextrā ubi aqua per leōnis caput fluit? In illō ipsō locō est taberna pīstōris quī sine dubiō vēndit crūstula.”

Brevī tempore[4] omnia erant parāta, iamque [5]quīnta hōra erat. Deinde Lentulus et fīlius ad caupōnam properāvērunt, quod famē[6] et sitī[7] urgēbantur. Ibi sub arboris umbrā sēdērunt et puerō imperāvērunt ut sibi[8] cibum et vīnum daret. Huic imperiō[9] puer celeriter pāruit. Tum laetī sē[10] ex labōre refēcērunt.

Post prandium prefectī sunt ut alia urbis spectācula vidērent. Illō tempore fuērunt Pompēiīs[11] multa templa, duo theātra, thermae magnumque amphitheātrum, quae omnia post paucōs annōs flammīs atque incendiīs Vesuvī et terrae mōtū dēlēta sunt. Ante hanc calamitātem autem hominēs [12]nihil dē monte veritī sunt. In amphitheātrō quidem Pūblius morārī cupīvit ut spectācula gladiātōria vidēret, quae in[13] illum ipsum diem prōscrīpta erant et iam [14]rē vērā incēperant. Sed Lentulus dīxit, “Morārī, Pūblī, [15]vereor ut possīmus. Iam decima hōra est et via est longa. Tempus suādet ut quam prīmum domum revertāmur.” Itaque servō imperāvit ut equōs iungeret, et sōlis occāsū[16] ad vīllam pervēnērunt.

[Footnote 1: We say, this kind of shop; Latin, this kind of shops.]

[Footnote 2: «ut ... parārēmus», §501.41.]

[Footnote 3: How is «ut» translated after a verb of fearing? How «nē»? Cf. §501.42.]

[Footnote 4: «tempore», §501.35.]

[Footnote 5: «quīnta hōra». The Romans numbered the hours of the day consecutively from sunrise to sunset, dividing the day, whether long or short, into twelve equal parts.]

[Footnote 6: «famē» shows a slight irregularity in that the abl. ending «-e» is long.]

[Footnote 7: «sitis», thirst, has «-im» in the acc. sing., «-ī» in the abl. sing., and no plural.]

[Footnote 8: Observe that the reflexive pronoun «sibi» does not here refer to the subject of the subordinate clause in which it stands, but to the subject of the main clause. This so-called indirect use of the reflexive is often found in object clauses of purpose.]

[Footnote 9: What case? Cf. §501.14.]

[Footnote 10: «sē», cf. p. 205, l. 7, and note.]

[Footnote 11: «Pompēiīs», §501.36.1.]

[Footnote 12: «nihil ... veritī sunt», had no fears of the mountain.]

[Footnote 13: «in», for.]

[Footnote 14: «rē vērā», in fact.]

[Footnote 15: «vereor ut», §501.42.]

[Footnote 16: «occāsū», §501.35.]

LXVI. LENTULUS ENGAGES A TUTOR FOR HIS SON

Ā prīmīs annīs quidem Iūlia ipsa fīlium suum docuerat, et Pūblius nōn sōlum [1]pūrē et Latīnē loquī poterat sed etiam commodē legēbat et scrībēbat. Iam Ennium[2] aliōsque poētās lēgerat. Nunc vērō Pūblius [3]duodecim annōs habēbat; itaque eī pater bonum magistrum, [4]virum omnī doctrīnā et virtūte ōrnātissimum, parāvit, [5]quī Graeca, mūsicam, aliāsque artīs docēret. [6]Namque illīs temporibus omnēs ferē gentēs Graecē loquēbantur. Cum Pūbliō aliī puerī, Lentulī amīcōrum fīliī,[7] discēbant. Nam saepe apud Rōmānōs mōs erat [8]nōn in lūdum fīliōs mittere sed domī per magistrum docēre. Cotīdiē discipulī cum magistrō in peristȳlō[9] Mārcī domūs sedēbant. Omnēs puerī bullam auream, orīginis honestae signum, in collō gerēbant, et omnēs togā praetextā amictī erant, [10]quod nōndum sēdecim annōs[11] nātī sunt.

[Footnote 1: «pūrē ... poterat», freely, could speak Latin well. What is the literal translation?]

[Footnote 2: «Ennium», the father of Latin poetry.]

[Footnote 3: «duodecim ... habēbat», cf. p. 206, l. 8, and note.]

[Footnote 4: «virum», etc., a very well-educated and worthy man. Observe the Latin equivalent.]

[Footnote 5: «quī ... docēret», a relative clause of purpose. Cf. §§ 349, 350.]

[Footnote 6: In Cæsar’s time Greek was spoken more widely in the Roman world than any other language.]

[Footnote 7: «fīliī», in apposition with «puerī».]

[Footnote 8: «nōn ... mittere». This infinitive clause is the subject of «erat». Cf. §216. The same construction is repeated in the next clause, «domī ... docēre». The object of «docēre» is «fīliōs» understood.]

[Footnote 9: The peristyle was an open court surrounded by a colonnade.]

[Footnote 10: At the age of sixteen a boy laid aside the bulla and the toga praetexta and assumed toga virīlis or manly gown.]

[Footnote 11: «annōs», §501.21. The expression «nōndum sēdecim annōs nātī sunt» means literally, they were born not yet sixteen years. This is the usual expression for age. What is the English equivalent?]

[Illustration: TABULA ET STILUS]

SCENE IN SCHOOL · AN EXERCISE IN COMPOSITION

DISCIPULĪ. Salvē, magister. MAGISTER. Vōs quoque omnēs, salvēte. [1]Tabulāsne portāvistis et stilōs? D. Portāvimus. M. Iam fābulam Aesōpī[2] discēmus. Ego legam, vōs in tabulīs scrībite. Et tū, Pūblī, dā mihi ē capsā[3] Aesōpī volūmen.[4] Iam audīte omnēs: Vulpēs et Ūva. Vulpēs ōlim famē coācta ūvam dēpendentem vīdit. Ad ūvam saliēbat, sūmere cōnāns. Frūstrā diū cōnāta, tandem īrāta erat et salīre cessāns dīxit: “Illa ūva est acerba; acerbam ūvam [5]nihil moror.” Omnia´ne scrīpsistis, puerī? D. Omnia, magister.

[Footnote 1: Tablets were thin boards of wood smeared with wax. The writing was done with a stylus, a pointed instrument like a pencil, made of bone or metal, with a knob at the other end. The knob was used to smooth over the wax in making erasures and corrections.]

[Footnote 2: «Aesōpī», the famous Greek to whom are ascribed most of the fables current in the ancient world.]

[Footnote 3: A cylindrical box for holding books and papers, shaped like a hatbox.]

[Footnote 4: Ancient books were written on rolls made of papy´rus.]

[Footnote 5: «nihil moror», I care nothing for.]

LXVII. PUBLIUS GOES TO ROME TO FINISH HIS EDUCATION

Iamque Pūblius, [1]quīndecim annōs nātus, [2]prīmīs litterārum elementīs cōnfectīs, Rōmam petere voluit ut scholās grammaticōrum et philosophōrum frequentāret. Et facillimē patrī[3] suō, qui ipse philosophiae studiō tenēbātur, persuāsit. Itaque [4]omnibus rēbus ad profectiōnem comparātīs, pater fīliusque equīs animōsīs vectī[5] ad magnam urbem profectī sunt. Eōs proficīscentīs Iūlia tōtaque familia vōtīs precibusque prōsecūtae sunt. Tum per loca[6] plāna et collis silvīs vestītōs viam ingressī sunt ad Nōlam, quod oppidum eōs hospitiō modicō excēpit. Nōlae[7] duās hōrās morātī sunt, quod sōl merīdiānus ārdēbat. Tum rēctā viā[8] circiter vīgintī mīlia[9] passuum[9] Capuam,[9] ad īnsignem Campāniae urbem, contendērunt. Eō[10] multā nocte dēfessī pervēnērunt. [11]Postrīdiē eius diēī, somnō et cibō recreātī, Capuā discessērunt et [13]viam Appiam ingressī, quae Capuam tangit et ūsque ad urbem Rōmam dūcit, ante merīdiem Sinuessam pervēnērunt, quod oppidum tangit mare. Inde prīmā lūce proficīscentēs Formiās[13] properāvērunt, ubi Cicerō, ōrātor clarissimus, quī forte apud vīllam suam erat, eōs benignē excēpit. Hinc [14]itinere vīgintī quīnque mīlium passuum factō, Tarracīnam, oppidum in saxīs altissimīs situm, vīdērunt. Iamque nōn longē aberant palūdēs magnae, quae multa mīlia passuum undique patent. Per eās pedestris via est gravis et in nāve viātōrēs vehuntur. Itaque [15]equīs relictīs Lentulus et Pūblius nāvem cōnscendērunt, et, ūnā nocte in trānsitū cōnsūmptā, Forum Appī vēnērunt. Tum brevī tempore Arīcia eōs excēpit. Hoc oppidum, in colle situm, ab urbe Romā sēdecim mīlia passuum abest. Inde dēclivis via ūsque ad latum campum dūcit ubi Rōma stat. Quem ad locum ubi Pūblius vēnit et Rōmam adhūc remōtam, maximam tōtīus orbis terrārum urbem, cōnspēxit, summā admīrātiōne et gaudiō adfectus est. Sine morā dēscendērunt, et, mediō intervāllō quam celerrimē superātō, urbem portā Capēnā ingressī sunt.

[Footnote 1: «quīndecim», etc., cf. p. 210, l. 5, and note.]

[Footnote 2: «prīmīs ... cōnfectīs», abl. abs. Cf. §501.28.]

[Footnote 3: «patrī», dat. with «persuāsit».]

[Footnote 4: «omnibus ... comparātīs», cf. note 2.]

[Footnote 5: «vectī», perf. pass. part. of «vehō».]

[Footnote 6: What is there peculiar about the gender of this word?]

[Footnote 7: «Nōlae», locative case, §501.36.2.]

[Footnote 8: «viā», cf. «portā», p. 208, l. 7, and note.]

[Footnote 9: What construction?]

[Footnote 10: «Eō», adv. there.]

[Footnote 11: «Postrīdiē eius diēī», on the next day.]

[Footnote 12: «viam Appiam», the most famous of all Roman roads, the great highway from Rome to Tarentum and Brundisium, with numerous branches. Locate on the map the various towns that are mentioned in the lines that follow.]

[Footnote 13: «Formiās», Formiæ, one of the most beautiful spots on this coast, and a favorite site for the villas of rich Romans.]

[Footnote 14: «itinere ... factō», abl. abs. The gen. «mīlium» modifies «itinere».]

[Footnote 15: «equīs relictīs». What construction? Point out a similar one in the next line.]

[Illustration: BULLA]

LXVIII. PUBLIUS PUTS ON THE TOGA VIRILIS

Pūblius iam tōtum annum Rōmae morābātur[1] multaque urbis spectācula vīderat et multōs sibi[2] amīcōs parāverat. Eī[3] omnēs favēbant; [4]dē eō omnēs bene spērāre poterant. Cotīdiē Pūblius scholas philosophōrum et grammaticōrum tantō studiō frequentābat [5]ut aliīs clārum exemplum praebēret. Saepe erat cum patre in cūriā[6]; quae rēs effēcit [7]ut summōs reī pūblicae virōs et audīret et vidēret. Ubi [8]sēdecim annōs natus est, bullam[9] auream et togam praetextam mōre Rōmānō dēposuit atque virīlem togam sūmpsit. Virīlis autem toga erat omnīnō alba, sed praetexta clāvum purpureum in margine habēbat. [10]Dēpōnere togam praetextam et sūmere togam virīlem erat rēs grātissima puerō Rōmānō, quod posteā vir et cīvis Rōmānus habēbātur.

[11]Hīs rēbus gestīs Lentulus ad uxōrem suam hās litterās scrīpsit:

[12]“Mārcus Iūliae suae salūtem dīcit. Sī valēs, bene est; ego valeō. Accēpī tuās litterās. Hās nunc Rōmā per servum fidēlissimum mittō ut dē Pūbliō nostrō quam celerrimē sciās. Nam hodiē eī togam virīlem dedī. Ante lucem surrēxī[13] et prīmum bullam auream dē collō eius remōvī. Hāc Laribus[14] cōnsecrātā et sacrīs factīs, eum togā virīlī vestīvī. Interim plūrēs amīcī cum multitūdine optimōrum cīvium et honestōrum clientium pervēnerant [15]quī Pūblium domō in forum dēdūcerent. Ibi in cīvitātem receptus est et nōmen, Pūblius Cornēlius Lentulus, apud cīvīs Rōmānōs ascrīptum est. Omnēs eī amīcissimī fuērunt et magna[16] de eō praedīcunt. Sapientior enim aequālibus[17] est et magnum ingenium habet. [18]Cūrā ut valeās.”

[Footnote 1: «morābātur», translate as if pluperfect.]

[Footnote 2: «sibi», for himself.]

[Footnote 3: «Eī», why dat.?]

[Footnote 4: «dē ... poterant», in English, all regarded him as a very promising youth; but what does the Latin say?]

[Footnote 5: «ut... praebēret», §501.43.]

[Footnote 6: «cūriā», a famous building near the Roman Forum.]

[Footnote 7: «ut ... audīret et vidēret», §501.44.]

[Footnote 8: «sēdecim, etc.», cf. p. 210, l. 5, and note.]

[Footnote 9: «bullam», cf. p. 210, l. 3, and note 4.]

[Footnote 10: These infinitive clauses are the subject of «erat». Cf. §216.]

[Footnote 11: «Hīs rēbus gestīs», i.e. the assumption of the toga virilis and attendant ceremonies.]

[Footnote 12: Compare the beginning of this letter with the one on page 206.]

[Footnote 13: «surrēxī», from «surgō».]

[Footnote 14: The Lares were the spirits of the ancestors, and were worshiped as household gods. All that the house contained was confided to their care, and sacrifices were made to them daily.]

[Footnote 15: «quī ... dēdūcerent», §350.]

[Footnote 16: «magna», great things, a neuter adj. used as a noun.]

[Footnote 17: «aequālibus», §501.34.]

[Footnote 18: «Cūrā ut valeās», take good care of your health. How does the Latin express this idea?]

LXIX. PUBLIUS JOINS CÆSAR’S ARMY IN GAUL

Pūblius iam adulēscēns postquam togam virīlem sūmpsit, aliīs rēbus studēre incēpit et praesertim ūsū[1] armōrum sē[2] dīligenter exercuit. Magis magisque amāvit illās artīs quae mīlitārem animum dēlectant. Iamque erant [3]quī eī cursum mīlitārem praedīcerent. Nec sine causā, quod certē patris īsigne exemplum [4]ita multum trahēbat. [5]Paucīs ante annīs C. Iūlius Caesar, ducum Rōmānōrum maximus, cōnsul creātus erat et hōc tempore in Galliā bellum grave gerēbat. Atque in exercitū eius plūrēs adulēscentēs mīlitābant, apud quōs erat amīcus quīdam Pūblī. Ille Pūblium crēbrīs litterīs vehementer hortābātur [6]ut iter in Galliam faceret. Neque Pūblius recūsāvit, et, multīs amīcīs ad portam urbis prōsequentibus, ad Caesaris castra profectus est. Quārtō diē postquam iter ingressus est, ad Alpīs, montīs altissimōs, pervēnit. Hīs summā difficultāte superātīs, tandem Gallōrum in fīnibus erat. Prīmō autem veritus est ut[7] castrīs Rōmānīs adpropinquāre posset, quod Gallī, maximīs cōpiīs coāctīs, Rōmānōs obsidēbant et viās omnīs iam clauserant. Hīs rēbus commōtus Pūblius vestem Gallicam induit nē ā Gallīs caperētur, et ita per hostium cōpiās incolumis ad castra pervenīre potuit. Intrā mūnītiōnes acceptus, ā Caesare benignē exceptus est. Imperātor fortem adulēscentem amplissimīs verbīs laudāvit et eum [8]tribūnum mīlītum creāvit.

[Footnote 1: Abl. of means.]

[Footnote 2: «sē», reflexive object of «exercuit».]

[Footnote 3: «quī ... praedīcerent», §501.45.]

[Footnote 4: «ita multum trahēbat», had a great influence in that direction.]

[Footnote 5: «Paucīs ante annīs», a few years before; in Latin, before by a few years, «ante» being an adverb and «annīs» abl. of degree of difference.]

[Footnote 6: «ut ... faceret», §501.41.]

[Footnote 7: «ut», how translated here? See §501.42.]

[Footnote 8: The military tribune was a commissioned officer nearly corresponding to our rank of colonel. The tribunes were often inexperienced men, so Cæsar did not allow them much responsibility.]

[Illustration: IMPEDIMENTA]

HOW THE ROMANS MARCHED AND CAMPED

Exercitus quī in hostium fīnibus bellum genit multīs perīcuīs circumdatus est. [1]Quae perīcula ut vītāret, Rōmāni summam cūram adhībēre solēbant. Adpropinquanteēs cōpiīs hostium agmen ita dispōnēbant [2]ut imperātor ipse cum plāribus legiōnibus expedītīs[3] prīmum agmen dūceret. Post eās cōpiās impedīmenta[4] tōtīus exercitūs conlocābant. [5]Tum legiōnēs quae proximē cōnscrīptae erant tōtum agmen claudēbant. Equitēs quoque in omnīs partīs dīmittēbantur quī loca explōrārent; et centuriōnēs praemittēbantur ut locum castrīs idōneum dēligerent. Locus habēbatur idōneus castrīs [6]quī facile dēfendī posset et prope aquam esset. Quā dē causā castra[7] in colle ab utrāque parte arduō, ā fronte lēniter dēclīvī saepe pōnēbantur; vel locus palūdibus cīnctus vel in flūminis rīpīs situs dēligēbātur. Ad locum postquam exercitus pervēnit, aliī mīlitum [8]in armīs erant, aliī castra mūnīre incipiēbant. Nam [9]quō tūtiōrēs ab hostibus mīlitēs essent, nēve incautī et imparātī opprimerentur, castra fossā lātā et vāllō altō mūniēbant. In castrīs portae quattuor erant ut ēruptiō mīlitum omnīs in partīs fierī posset. In angulīs castrōrum erant turrēs dē quibus tēla in hostīs coniciēbantur. [10]Tālibus in castrīs quālia dēscrīpsimus Pūblius ā Caesare exceptus est.

[Footnote 1: «Quae perīcula», object of «vītārent». It is placed first to make a proper connection with the preceding sentence.]

[Footnote 2: «ut ... dūceret», §501.43.]

[Footnote 3: «expedītīs», i.e. without baggage and ready for action.]

[Footnote 4: «impedīmenta». Much of the baggage was carried in carts and on beasts of burden, as is shown above; but, besides this, each soldier (unless «expedītus») carried a heavy pack. See also picture, p. 159.]

[Footnote 5: The newest legions were placed in the rear, because they were the least reliable.]

[Footnote 6: «quī ... posset ... esset», §501.45.]

[Footnote 7: «castra», subject of «pōnēbantur».]

[Footnote 8: «in armīs erant», stood under arms.]

[Footnote 9: «quō ... essent». When is «quō» used to introduce a purpose clause? See §350.I.]

[Footnote 10: «Tālibus in castrīs quālia», in such a camp as. It is important to remember the correlatives «tālis ... quālis», such ... as.]

[Illustration: CENTURIO]

LXX. THE RIVAL CENTURIONS

Illīs in castrīs erant duo centuriōnēs,[1] fortissimī virī, T. Pullō et L. Vorēnus, quōrum neuter alterī virtūte[2] cēdere volēbat. Inter eōs iam multōs annōs īnfēnsum certāmen gerēbātur. Tum dēmum fīnis contrōversiae hōc modō[3] factus est. Diē tertiō postquam Pūblius pervēnit, hostēs, maiōribus cōpiīs coāctīs, ācerrimum impetum in castra fēcērunt. Tum Pullō, [4]cum Rōmānī tardiōrēs[5] vidērentur, “Cūr dubitās,” inquit, “Vorēne? Quam commodiōrem occāsiōnem exspectās? Hic diēs dē virtūte nostrā iūdicābit.” Haec[6] cum dīxisset, extrā mūnītiōnēs prōcessit et in eam hostium partem quae cōfertissima [7]vidēbātur inrūpit. Neque Vorēnus quidem tum vāllō[8] sēsē continet, sed Pullōnem subsequitur. Tum Pullō pīlum in hostīs immittit atque ūnum ex multitūdine prōcurrentem trāicit. Hunc percussum et exanimātum hostēs scūtīs prōtegunt et in Pullōnem omnēs tēla coniciunt. Eius scūtum trānsfīgitur et tēlum in balteō dēfīgitur. Hic cāsus vāgīnam āvertit et dextram manum eius gladium ēdūcere cōnantis[9] morātur. Eum ita impedītum hostēs circumsistunt.

Tum vēro [10]eī labōrantī Vorēnus, cum sit inimīcus, tamen auxilium dat. Ad hunc cōnfestim [11]ā Pullōne omnis multitūdō sē convertit. Gladiō comminus pugnat Vorēnus, atque, ūnō interfectō, reliquōs paulum prōpellit. Sed īnstāns cupidius[12] īnfēlīx, [13]pede sē fallente, concidit.

Huic rūrsus circumventō auxilium dat Pullō, atque ambō incolumēs, plūribus interfectīs, summā cum laude intrā mūnītiōnēs sē recipiunt. Sic inimīcōrum alter alterī auxilium dedit nec de eōrum virtūte quisquam iūdicāre potuit.

[Footnote 1: A centurion commanded a company of about sixty men. He was a common soldier who had been promoted from the ranks for his courage and fighting qualities. The centurions were the real leaders of the men in battle. There were sixty of them in a legion. The centurion in the picture (p. 216) has in his hand a staff with a crook at one end, the symbol of his authority.]

[Footnote 2: «virtūte», §501.30.]

[Footnote 3: Abl. of manner.]

[Footnote 4: «cum ... vidērentur», §501.46.]

[Footnote 5: «tardiōrēs», too slow, a not infrequent translation of the comparative degree.]

[Footnote 6: «Haec», obj. of «dīxisset». It is placed before «cum» to make a close connection with the preceding sentence. What is the construction of «dīxisset»?]

[Footnote 7: «vidēbatur, inrūpit». Why is the imperfect used in one case and the perfect in the other? Cf. §190.]

[Footnote 8: «vāllō», abl. of means, but in English we should say within the rampart. Cf. «ingentī stabulō», p. 201, l. 13, and note.]

[Footnote 9: «cōnantis», pres. part. agreeing with «eius».]

[Footnote 10: «eī labōrantī», indir. obj. of dat.]

[Footnote 11: «ā Pullōne», from Pullo, abl. of separation.]

[Footnote 12: «cupidius», too eagerly.]

[Footnote 13: «pede sē fallente», lit. the foot deceiving itself; in our idiom, his foot slipping.]

LXXI. THE ENEMY BESIEGING THE CAMP ARE REPULSED

Cum iam sex hōrās pugnatum esset[1] ac nōn sōlum vīrēs sed etiam tēla Rōmānōs dēficerent[1], atque hostēs ācrius instārent,[1] et vāllum scindere fossamque complēre incēpissent,[1] Caesar, vir reī mīlitāris perītissimus, suīs imperāvit ut proelium paulisper intermitterent,[2] et, signō datō, ex castrīs ērumperent.[2] [3]Quod iussī sunt faciunt, et subitō ex omnibus portīs ērumpunt. Atque tam celeriter mīlitēs concurrērunt et tam propinquī erant hostēs[4] ut spatium pīla coniciendī[5] nōn darētur. Itaque reiectīs pīlīs [6]comminus gladiīs pugnātum est. Diū et audācter hostēs restitērunt et in extrēmā spē salūtis tantam virtūtem praestitērunt ut ā dextrō cornū vehementer [7]multitūdine suōrum aciem Rōmanam premerent. [8]Id imperātor cum animadvertisset, Pūblium adulēscentem cum equitātū mīsit quī labōrantibus[9] auxilium daret. Eius impetum sustinēre nōn potuērunt hostēs[10] et omnēs terga vertērunt. Eōs in fugam datōs Pūblius subsecūtus est ūsque ad flūmen Rhēnum, quod ab eō locō quīnque mīlia passuum aberat. Ibi paucī salūtem sibi repperērunt. Omnibus reliquīs interfectīs, Pūblius et equitēs in castra sēsē recēpērunt. Dē hāc calamitāte fīnitimae gentēs cum certiōrēs factae essent, ad Caesarem lēgātōs mīsērunt et sē suaque omnia dēdidērunt.

[Footnote 1: «pugnātum esset, dēficerent, īnstārent, incēpissent». These are all subjunctives with «cum». Cf. §501.46.]

[Footnote 2: «intermitterent, ērumperent». What use of the subjunctive?]

[Footnote 3: «Quod», etc., they do as ordered. The antecedent of «quod» is «id» understood, which would be the object of «faciunt».]

[Footnote 4: «ut ... darētur». Is this a clause of purpose or of result?]

[Footnote 5: «coniciendī», §402.]

[Footnote 6: «comminus gladiīs pugnātum est», a hand-to-hand conflict was waged with swords.]

[Footnote 7: «multitūdine suōrum», by their numbers. «suōrum» is used as a noun. What is the literal translation of this expression?]

[Footnote 8: «Id imperātor. Id» is the obj. and «imperātor» the subj. of «animadvertisset».]

[Footnote 9: «labōrantibus». This participle agrees with «iīs» understood, the indir. obj. of «daret; qui ... daret» is a purpose clause, §501.40.]

[Footnote 10: «hostēs», subj. of «potuērunt».]

LXXII. PUBLIUS GOES TO GERMANY · ITS GREAT FORESTS AND STRANGE ANIMALS

Initā aestāte Caesar litterīs certior fīēbat et per explōrātōrēs cognōscēbat plūrīs cīvitātēs Galliae novīs rēbus studēre,[1] et contrā populum Rōmānum coniūrāre[1] obsidēsque [2]inter sē dare,[1] atque cum hīs Germānōs quōsdam quoque sēsē coniūnctūrōs esse.[1] Hīs litterīs nūntiīsque commōtus Caesar cōnstituit quam celerrimē in Gallōs proficīscī,[3] ut eōs inopīnantīs opprimeret, et Labiēnum lēgātum cum duābus legiōnibus peditum et duōbus mīlibus equitum in Germānōs mittere.[3] [4]Itaque rē frūmentāriā comparātā castra mōvit. Ab utrōque[5] rēs bene gesta est; nam Caesar tam celeriter in hostium fīnīs pervēnit ut spatium [6]cōpiās cōgendī nōn darētur[4]; et Labiēnus dē Germānīs tam grave supplicium sūmpsit ut nēmō ex eā gente in reliquum tempus Gallīs auxilium dare audēret.[7]

Hoc iter in Germāniam Pūblius quoque fēcit et, [8]cum ibi morārētur, multa mīrābilia vīdit. Praesertim vērō ingentem silvam mīrābātur, quae tantae magnitūdinis esse dīcēbātur [9]ut nēmō eam trānsīre posset, nec quisquam scīret aut initium aut fīnem. Quā dē rē plūra cognōverat ā mīlite quōdam quī ōlim captus ā Germānīs multōs annōs ibi incoluit. Ille[10] dē silvā dīcēns, “Īnfīnītae magnitūdinis est haec silva,” inquit; “nee quisquam est [11]huius Germāniae [12]quī initium eius sciat aut ad fīnem adierit. Nāscuntur illīc multa tālia animālium genera quālia reliquīs in locīs nōn inveniuntur. Sunt bovēs quī ūnum[13] cornū habent; sunt etiam animālia quae appellantur alcēs. Hae nūllōs crūrum[14] articulōs habent. Itaque, sī forte concidērunt, sēsē ērigere nūllō modō possunt. Arborēs habent prō[15] cubīlibus; ad eās sē applicant atque ita reclīnātae quiētem capiunt. Tertium est genus eōrum quī ūrī appellantur. Hī sunt paulō minōrēs elephantīs.[16] Magna vis eōrum est et magna vēlōcitās. Neque hominī neque ferae parcunt.[17]”

[Footnote 1: Observe that all these infinitives are in indirect statements after «certior fīēbat», he was informed, and «cognōscēbat», he learned. Cf. §501.48, 49.]

[Footnote 2: «inter sē», to each other.]

[Footnote 3: «proficīscī, mittere». These infinitives depend upon «cōnstituit».]

[Footnote 4: Before beginning a campaign, food had to be provided. Every fifteen days grain was distributed. Each soldier received about two pecks. This he carried in his pack, and this constituted his food, varied occasionally by what he could find by foraging.]

[Footnote 5: Abl. of personal agent, §501.33.]

[Footnote 6: «cōpiās cōgendī», §501.37.1.]

[Footnote 7: «darētur, audēret», §501.43. «audēret» is not from «audiō».]

[Footnote 8: «cum ... morārētur», §501.46.]

[Footnote 9: «ut ... posset, ... scīret», §501.43.]

[Footnote 10: «Ille», subj. of «inquit».]

[Footnote 11: «huius Germāniae», of this part of Germany.]

[Footnote 12: «quī ... scīat ... adierit», §501.45.]

[Footnote 13: «ūnum», only one.]

[Footnote 14: «crūrum», from «crūs».]

[Footnote 15: «prō», for, in place of.]

[Footnote 16: «elephantīs», §501.34.]

[Footnote 17: «parcunt». What case is used with this verb?]

[Illustration: VINEA]

LXXIII. THE STORMING OF A CITY

Pūblius plūrīs diēs in Germāniā morātus[1] in Galliam rediit, et ad Caesaris castra sē contulit. Ille quia molestē ferēbat Gallōs[2] eius regiōnis obsidēs dare recūsāvisse et exercituī frūmentum praebēre nōluisse, cōnstituit eīs[3] bellum īnferre. Agrīs vāstātīs, vīcīs incēnsīs, pervēnit ad oppidum validissimum quod et nātūrā et arte mūnītum erat. Cingēbātur mūrō vīgintī quīnque pedēs[4] altō. Ā lateribus duōsitum, praeruptō fastīgiō ad plānitiem vergēgat; ā quārtō tantum[5] latere aditus erat facilis. Hoc oppidum oppugnāre, [6]cum opus esset difficillimum, tamen cōnstituit Caesar. Et castrīs mūnītīs Pūbliō negōtium dedit ut rēs [7]ad oppugnandum necessāriās parāret.

Rōmānōrum autem oppugnātiō est haec.[8] Prīmum turrēs aedificantur quibus mīlitēs in summum mūrum ēvādere possint[9]; vīneae[10] fīunt quibus tēctī mīlitēs ad mūrum succēdant; pluteī[11] parantur post quōs mīlitēs tormenta[12] administrent; sunt quoque arietēs quī mūrum et portās discutiant. Hīs omnibus rēbus comparātīs, deinde [13]agger ab eā parte ubi aditus est facillimus exstruitur et cum vīneīs ad ipsum oppidum agitur. Tum turris in aggere prōmovētur; arietibus quī sub vīneīs conlocātī erant mūrus et portae discutiuntur; ballistīs, catapultīs, reliquīsque tormentīs lapidēs et tēla in oppidum coniciuntur. Postrēmō cum iam turris et agger altitūdinem mūrī adaequant et arietēs moenia perfrēgērunt,[14] signō datō mīlitēs inruunt et oppidum expugnant.

[Footnote 1: «morātus». Is this part. active or passive in meaning?]

[Footnote 2: «Gallōs», subj. acc. of the infins. «recūsāvisse» and «nōluisse». The indirect statement depends upon «molestē ferēbat».]

[Footnote 3: «eīs», §501.15.]

[Footnote 4: «pedēs», §501.21.]

[Footnote 5: «tantum», adv. only.]

[Footnote 6: «cum ... esset», a clause of concession, §501.46.]

[Footnote 7: «ad oppugnandum», a gerund expressing purpose.]

[Footnote 8: «haec», as follows.]

[Footnote 9: «possint», subjv. of purpose. Three similar constructions follow.]

[Footnote 10: «vīneae». These «vīneae» were wooden sheds, open in front and rear, used to protect men who were working to take a fortification. They were about eight feet high, of like width, and double that length, covered with raw hides to protect them from being set on fire, and moved on wheels or rollers.]

[Footnote 11: «pluteī», large screens or shields with small wheels attached to them. These were used to protect besiegers while moving up to a city or while serving the engines of war.]

[Footnote 12: «tormenta». The engines of war were chiefly the catapult for shooting great arrows, and the ballista, for hurling large stones. They had a range of about two thousand feet and were very effective.]

[Footnote 13: The «agger», or mound, was of chief importance in a siege. It was begun just out of reach of the missiles of the enemy, and then gradually extended towards the point to be attacked. At the same time its height gradually increased until on a level with the top of the wall, or even higher. It was made of earth and timber, and had covered galleries running through it for the use of the besiegers. Over or beside the agger a tower was moved up to the wall, often with a battering-ram (aries) in the lowest story. (See picture, p. 221.)]

[Footnote 14: «perfrēgērunt», from «perfringō».]

[Illustration: BALLISTA]

[Illustration: TURRES, ARIETES, VINEA]

LXXIV. THE CITY IS TAKEN · THE CAPTIVES ARE QUESTIONED

Omnibus rēbus necessāriīs ad oppugnandum ā Pūbliō comparātīs, dēlīberātur in conciliō quod cōnsilium [1]oppidī expugnandī ineant.[2] Tum ūnus[3] ex centuriōnibus, vir reī mīlitāris perītissimus, “Ego suādeō,” inquit, “ut ab eā parte, ubi aditus sit[5] facillimus, aggerem exstruāmus[4] et turrim prōmoveāmus[6] atque ariete admōtō simul mūrum discutere cōnēmur.[5]” [6]Hoc cōnsilium cum omnibus placēret, Caesar concilium dīmīsit. Deinde mīlitēs hortātus ut priōrēs victōriās memoriā[7] tenērent, iussit aggerem exstruī, turrim et arietem admovērī. Neque oppidānīs[8] cōnsilium dēfuit. Aliī ignem et omne genus tēlōrum dē mūrō in turrim coniēcērunt, aliī ingentia saxa in vīneās et arietem dēvolvērunt. Diū utrimque ācerrimē pugnātum est. Nē vulnerātī quidem pedem rettulērunt. Tandem, [9]dē tertiā vigiliā, Pūblius, quem Caesar illī operī[10] praefēcerat, nūntiāvit partem[11] mūrī ictibus arietis labefactam concidisse. Quā rē audītā Caesar signum dat; mīlitēs inruunt et magnā cum caede hostium oppidum capiunt.

Postrīdiē eius diēī, hōc oppidō expugnātō, [12]captīvōrum quī nōbilissimī sunt ad imperātōrem ante praetōrium[13] addūcuntur. Ipse, lōrīcā aurātā et paludāmentō purpureō īnsignis, captīvōs per interpretem in hunc modum interrogat:[14] Vōs quī estis[15]?

INTERPRES. Rogat imperātor quī sītis.

CAPTĪVĪ. Fīliī rēgis sumus.

INTERPRES. Dīcunt sē fīliōs esse rēgis.

IMPERĀTOR. Cūr mihi tantās iniūriās intulistis?

INTERPRES. Rogat cūr sibi tantās iniūriās intuleritis.

CAPTĪVĪ. Iniūriās eī nōn intulimus sed prō patriā bellum gessimus. Semper voluimus Rōmānīs esse amīcī, sed Rōmānī sine causā nōs domō patriāque expellere cōnātī sunt.

INTERPRES. [16]Negant sē iniūriās tibi intulisse, sed prō patriā bellum gessisse. [17]Semper sē voluisse amīcōs Rōmānīs esse, sed Rōmānōs sine causā sē domō patriāque expellere cōnātōs esse.

IMPERĀTOR. [18]Manēbitisne in reliquum tempus in fidē, hāc rebelliōne condōnātā?

Tum vērō captīvī multīs cum lacrimīs iūrāvērunt sē in fidē mānsūrōs esse, et Caesar eōs incolumīs domum dīmīsit.

[Footnote 1: «oppidī expugnandī». Is this a gerund or a gerundive construction? Cf. §501.37.]

[Footnote 2: «ineant». §501.50.]

[Footnote 3: «ūnus». subj. of «inquit».]

[Footnote 4: «sit». This is a so-called subjunctive by attraction, which means that the clause beginning with «ubi» stands in such close connection with the subjv. clause beginning with «ut», that its verb is attracted into the same mood.]

[Footnote 5: All these verbs are in the same construction.]

[Footnote 6: «Hoc cōnsilium», subj. of «placēret». For the order cf. «Haec cum», etc., p. 215, l. 22, and note; «Id imperātor cum», p. 217, l. 8.]

[Footnote 7: «memoriā», abl. of means.]

[Footnote 8: «oppidānīs», §501.15.]

[Footnote 9: Between twelve and three o’clock in the morning. The night was divided into four watches.]

[Footnote 10: «operī», §501.15.]

[Footnote 11: «partem», subj. acc. of «concidisse».]

[Footnote 12: «captīvōrum ... sunt», the noblest of the captives.]

[Footnote 13: The general’s headquarters.]

[Footnote 14: Study carefully these direct questions, indirect questions, and indirect statements.]

[Footnote 15: See Plate III, p. 148.]

[Footnote 16: «Negant», etc., they say that they have not, etc. «Negant» is equivalent to «dīcunt nōn», and the negative modifies «intulisse», but not the remainder of the indirect statement.]

[Footnote 17: «Semper», etc., that they have always, etc.]

[Footnote 18: «Manēbitisne in fidē», will you remain loyal?]

LXXV. CIVIL WAR BREAKS OUT BETWEEN CÆSAR AND POMPEY THE BATTLE OF PHARSALIA

Nē cōnfectō[1] quidem bellō Gallicō, [2]bellum cīvīle inter Caesarem et Pompēium exortum est. Nam Pompēius, quī summum imperium petēbat, senātuī persuāserat ut Caesarem reī pūblicae hostem[3] iūdicāret et exercitum eius dīmittī iubēret. Quibus cognitīs rēbus Caesar exercitum suum dīmittere recūsāvit, atque, hortātus mīlitēs ut ducem totiēns victōrem ab inimīcōrum iniūriīs dēfenderent, imperāvit ut sē Rōmam sequerentur. Summā cum alacritāte mīlitēs pāruērunt, et trānsitō Rubicōne[4] initium bellī cīvīlis factum est.

Italiae urbēs quidem omnēs ferē [5]rēbus Caesaris favēbant et eum benignē excēpērunt. Quā rē commōtus Pompēius ante Caesaris adventum Rōmā excessit et Brundisium[6] pervēnit, inde [7]paucīs post diēbus cum omnibus cōpiīs ad Ēpīrum mare trānsiit. Eum Caesar cum septem legiōnibus et quīngentīs equitibus secūtus est, et īnsignis inter Caesaris comitātum erat Pūblius.

Plūribus leviōribus proeliīs factīs, tandem cōpiae adversae ad Pharsālum[8] in Thessaliā sitam castra posuērunt. Cum Pompeī exercitus esset bis tantus quantus Caesaris, tamen erant multī quī veterānās legiōnēs quae Gallōs et Germānōs superāverant vehementer timēbant. Quōs[9] [10]ante proelium commissum Labiēnus[11] lēgātus, quī ab Caesare nūper dēfēcerat, ita adlocūtus est: “[12]Nōlīte exīstimāre hunc esse exercitum veterānōrum mīlitum. Omnibus interfuī proeliīs[13] neque temerē incognitam rem prōnūntiō. Perexigua pars illīus exercitūs quī Gallōs superāvit adhūc superest. Magna pars occīsa est, multī domum discessērunt, multī sunt relictī in Italiā. Hae cōpiae quās vidētis in [14]citeriōre Galliā nūper cōnscrīptae sunt.” Haec[15] cum dīxisset, iūrāvit sē nisi victōrem in castra nōn reversūrum esse. [16]Hoc idem Pompēius et omnēs reliquī iūrāvērunt, et magnā spē et laetitiā, sīcut certam ad victōriam, cōpiae ē castrīs exiērunt.

Item Caesar, animō[17] ad dīmicandum parātus, exercitum suum ēdūxit et septem cohortibus [18]praesidiō castrīs relictīs cōpiās triplicī aciē īnstrūxit. Tum, mīlitibus studiō pugnae ārdentibus, tubā signum dedit. Mīlitēs prōcurrērunt et pīlīs missīs gladiōs strīnxērunt. Neque vērō virtūs hostibus dēfuit. Nam et tēla missa sustinuērunt et impetum gladiōrum excēpērunt et ōrdinēs cōnservāvērunt. Utrimque diū et ācriter pugnātum est nec quisquam pedem rettulit. Tum equitēs Pompēī aciem Caesaris circumīre cōnātī sunt. Quod[19] ubi Caesar animadvertit, tertiam aciem,[20] quae ad id tempus quiēta fuerat, prōcurrere iussit. Tum vērō integrōrum impetum[21] dēfessī hostēs sustinēre nōn potuērunt et omnēs terga vertērunt. Sed Pompēius dē fortūnīs suīs dēspērāns sē in castra equō contulit, inde mox cum paucīs equitibus effūgit.

[Footnote 1: With «nē ... quidem» the emphatic word stands between the two.]

[Footnote 2: The Civil War was caused by the jealousy and rivalry between Cæsar and Pompey. It resulted in the defeat and subsequent death of Pompey and the elevation of Cæsar to the lordship of the Roman world.]

[Footnote 3: «hostem», predicate accusative, §501.22.]

[Footnote 4: The Rubicon was a small stream in northern Italy that marked the boundary of Cæsar’s province. By crossing it with an armed force Cæsar declared war upon Pompey and the existing government. Cæsar crossed the Rubicon early in the year 49 B.C.]

[Footnote 5: «rēbus Caesaris favēbant», favored Cæsar’s side. In what case is «rēbus»?]

[Footnote 6: «Brundisium», a famous port in southern Italy whence ships sailed for Greece and the East. See map.]

[Footnote 7: «paucīs post diēbus», a few days later; literally, afterguards by a few days. Cf. «paucīs ante annīs», p. 213, l. 12, and note.]

[Footnote 8: The battle of Pharsalia was fought on August 9, 48 B.C. In importance it ranks as one of the great battles of the world.]

[Footnote 9: «Quōs», obj. of «adlocūtus est».]

[Footnote 10: «ante proelium commissum», before the beginning of the battle.]

[Footnote 11: «Labiēnus», Cæsar’s most faithful and skillful lieutenant in the Gallic War. On the outbreak of the Civil War, in 49 B.C., he deserted Cæsar and joined Pompey. His defection caused the greatest joy among the Pompeian party; but he disappointed the expectations of his new friends, and never accomplished anything of importance. He fought against his old commander in several battles and was slain at the battle of Munda in Spain, 45 B.C.]

[Footnote 12: «Nōlīte exīstimāre», don´t think.]

[Footnote 13: «proeliīs», §501.15.]

[Footnote 14: «citeriōre Galliā». This name is applied to Cisalpine Gaul, or Gaul south of the Alps.]

[Footnote 15: «Haec», obj. of «dīxisset».]

[Footnote 16: «Hoc idem», obj. of «iūrāvērunt».]

[Footnote 17: «animō», §501.30.]

[Footnote 18: «praesidiō castrīs», §501.17.]

[Footnote 19: «Quod», obj. of «animadvertit».]

[Footnote 20: «aciem», subj. of «prōcurrere».]

[Footnote 21: «impetum», obj. of «sustinēre».]

[Illustration: SIGNIFER]

LXXVI. THE TRIUMPH OF CAESAR

Pompēiō amīcīsque eius superātīs atque omnibus hostibus ubīque victīs, Caesar imperātor Rōmam rediit et [1]extrā moenia urbis in campō Mārtiō castra posuit. Tum vērō amplissimīs honōribus adfectus est. Dictātor creātus est, et eī triumphus ā senātū est dēcrētus. [2]Quō diē de Gallīs triumphum ēgit, tanta multitūdō hominum in urbem undique cōnflūxit [3]ut omnia loca essent cōnferta. Templa patēbant, ārae fūmābant, columnae sertīs ōrnātae erant. [4]Cum vērō pompa urbem intrāret, quantus hominum fremitus ortus est! Prīmum per portam ingressī sunt senātus et magistrātūs. Secūtī sunt tībīcinēs, signiferī, peditēs laureā corōnātī canentēs: “Ecce Caesar nunc triumphat, quī subēgit Galliam,” et “Mīlle, mīlle, mīlle, mīlle Gallōs trucīdāvimus.” Multī praedam captārum urbium portābant, arma, omnia bellī īnstrūmenta. Secūtī sunt equitēs, animōsīs atque splendidissimē ōrnātīs equīs vectī, inter quōs Pūblius adulēscēns fortissimus habēbātur. Addūcēbantur taurī, arietēs, [5]quī dīs immortālibus immolārentur. Ita longō agmine prōgrediēns exercitus [6]sacrā viā per forum in Capitōlium perrēxit.

Imperātor ipse cum urbem intrāret, undique laetō clāmōre multitūdinis salūtātus est. Stābat in currū aureō quem quattuor albī equī vehēbant. Indūtus [7]togā pictā, alterā manū habēnās et lauream tenēbat, alterā eburneum scēptrum. Post eum servus in currū stāns auream corōnam super caput eius tenēbat. Ante currum miserrimī captīvī, rēgēs prīncipēsque superātārum gentium, catēnīs vīnctī, prōgrediēbantur; et vīgintī quattuor līctōrēs[8] laureatās fascīs ferentēs et signiferī currum Caesaris comitābantur. Conclūdit agmen multitūdō captīvōrum, quī, in servitūtem redāctī,[9] dēmissō vultū, vīnctīs[10] bracchiīs, sequuntur; quibuscum veniunt longissimō ōrdine mīlitēs, etiam hī praedam vel insignia mīlitāria ferentēs.

[Illustration: LICTORES CUM FASCIBUS]

Caesar cum Capitōlium ascendisset, in templō Iovī Capitōlīnō sacra fēcit. Simul[11] captivōrum quī nōbilissimī erant, abductī in carcerem,[12] interfectī sunt. Sacrīs factīs Caesar dē Capitōliō dēscendit et in forō mīitibus suīs honōrēs mīlitārīs dedit eīsque pecūniam ex bellī praedā distribuit.

Hīs omnibus rēbus cōnfectīs, Pūblius Caesarem valēre[13] iussit et quam celerrimē ad vīllam contendit ut patrem mātremque salūtāret.

[14]Dē rēbus gestīs P. Cornēlī Lentulī hāctenus.

[Footnote 1: A victorious general with his army was not allowed to enter the city until the day of his triumph. A triumph was the greatest of all military honors.]

[Footnote 2: «Quō diē», on the day that, abl. of time.]

[Footnote 3: «ut ... essent», §501.43.]

[Footnote 4: «Cum ... intrāret», §501.46.]

[Footnote 5: «quī ... immolārentur», §501.40.]

[Footnote 6: The Sacred Way was a noted street running along one side of the Forum to the base of the Capitoline Hill, on whose summit stood the magnificent temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. This route was always followed by triumphal processions.]

[Footnote 7: The «toga picta» worn by a general in his triumph was a splendid robe of Tyrian purple covered with golden stars. See Plate IV, p. 213.]

[Footnote 8: The lictors were a guard of honor that attended the higher magistrates and made a way for them through the streets. On their shoulders they carried the fasces, a bundle of rods with an ax in the middle, symbolizing the power of the law.]

[Footnote 9: «dēmissō vultū», with downcast countenance.]

[Footnote 10: «vīnctīs», from «vinciō».]

[Footnote 11: «Simul», etc., At the same time those of the captives who were the noblest.]

[Footnote 12: The prison was a gloomy dungeon on the lower slopes of the Capitoline Hill.]

[Footnote 13: «valēre iussit», bade farewell to.]

[Footnote 14: This sentence marks the end of the story.]

APPENDIX I

DECLENSIONS, CONJUGATIONS, NUMERALS, ETC.

NOUNS

«460.» Nouns are inflected in five declensions, distinguished by the final letter of the stem and by the termination of the genitive singular.

FIRST DECLENSION--«Ā-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-ae»

SECOND DECLENSION--«O-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-ī»

THIRD DECLENSION--Consonant stems and «I-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-is»

FOURTH DECLENSION--«U-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-ūs»

FIFTH DECLENSION--«Ē-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-ē̆ī»

«461.» FIRST DECLENSION. Ā-STEMS

«domina», lady STEM «dominā-» BASE «domin-»

SINGULAR PLURAL TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS Nom. domina -a dominae -ae Gen. dominae -ae dominārum -ārum Dat. dominae -ae dominīs -īs Acc. dominam -am dominās -ās Abl. dominā -ā dominīs -īs

a. «Dea» and «fīlia» have the termination «-ābus» in the dative and ablative plural.

«462.» SECOND DECLENSION. O-STEMS

a. MASCULINES IN -us

«dominus», master STEM «domino-» BASE «domin-»

SINGULAR PLURAL TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS Nom. dominus -us dominī -ī Gen. dominī -ī dominōrum -ōrum Dat. dominō -ō dominīs -īs Acc. dominum -um dominōs -ōs Abl. dominō -ō dominīs -īs

1. Nouns in «-us» of the second declension have the termination «-e» in the vocative singular, as «domine».

2. Proper names in «-ius», and «filius», end in «-ī» in the vocative singular, and the accent rests on the penult, as «Vergi´lī, fīlī».

b. NEUTERS IN -um

«pīlum», spear STEM «pīlo-» BASE «pīl-»

SINGULAR PLURAL TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS Nom. pīlum -um pīla -a Gen. pīlī -ī pīlōrum -ōrum Dat. pīlō -ō pīlīs -īs Acc. pīlum -um pīla -a Abl. pīlō -ō pīlīs -īs

1. Masculines in «-ius» and neuters in «-ium» end in «-ī» in the genitive singular, not in «-iī», and the accent rests on the penult.

c. MASCULINES IN -er AND -ir

«puer», boy «ager», field «vir», man STEMS «puero-» «agro-» «viro-» BASES «puer-» «agr-» «vir-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS Nom. puer ager vir -- Gen. puerī agrī virī -ī Dat. puerō agrō virō -ō Acc. puerum agrum virum -um Abl. puerō agrō virō -ō

PLURAL Nom. puerī agrī virī -ī Gen. puerōrum agrōrum virōrum -ōrum Dat. puerīs agrīs virīs -īs Acc. puerōs agrōs virōs -ōs Abl. puerīs agrīs virīs -īs

«463.» THIRD DECLENSION.

CLASSIFICATION

I. Consonant Stems

1. Stems that add «-s» to the base to form the nominative singular: masculines and feminines only.

2. Stems that add no termination in the nominitive singular: a. masculines and feminines; b. neuters.

II. I-Stems.

Masculines, feminines, and neuters.

«464.» I. CONSONANT STEMS

1. Nouns that add «-s» to the base to form the nominative singular: masculines and feminines only

«prīnceps», «mīles», m., «lapis», m., m., chief soldier stone BASES | OR | «prīncip-» «mīlit-» «lapid-» STEMS |

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS Nom. prīnceps mīles lapis -s Gen. prīncipis mīlitis lapidis -is Dat. prīncipī mīlitī lapidī -ī Acc. prīncipem mīlitem lapidem -em Abl. prīncipe mīlite lapide -e

PLURAL Nom. prīncipēs mīlitēs lapidēs -ēs Gen. prīncipum mīlitum lapidum -um Dat. prīncipibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus Acc. prīncipēs mīlitēs lapidēs -ēs Abl. prīncipibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus

«rēx», m., «iūdex», m., «virtūs», f., king judge virtue BASES | OR | «rēg-» «iūdic-» «virtūt-» STEMS |

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS Nom. rēx iūdex virtūs -s Gen. rēgis iūdicis virtūtis -is Dat. rēgī iūdicī virtūtī -ī Acc. rēgem iūdicem virtūtem -em Abl. rēge iūdice virtūte -e

PLURAL Nom. rēgēs iūdicēs virtūtēs -ēs Gen. rēgum iūdicum virtūtum -um Dat. rēgibus iūdicibus virtūtibus -ibus Acc. rēgēs iūdicēs virtūtēs -es Abl. rēgibus iūdicibus virtūtibus -ibus

NOTE. For consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf. §233.3.

2. Nouns that have no termination in the nominative singular

a. MASCULINES AND FEMININES

«cōnsul», m., «legiō», f., «ōrdō», «pater», m., consul legion m., row father BASES | OR | «consul-» «legiōn-» «ōrdin-» «patr-» STEMS |

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS Nom. cōnsul legiō ōrdō pater -- Gen. cōnsulis legiōnis ōrdinis patris -is Dat. cōnsulī legiōnī ōrdinī patrī -ī Acc. cōnsulem legiōnem ōrdinem patrem -em Abl. cōnsule legiōne ōrdine patre -e

NOTE. For vowel and consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf. §236.1-3.

b. NEUTERS «flūmen», «tempus», «opus», «caput», n., river n., time n., work n., head BASES | OR | «flūmin-» «tempor-» «oper-» «capit-» STEMS |

NOTE. For vowel and consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf. §238.2, 3.

«465.» II. I-STEMS

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS Nom. caedēs hostis urbs cliēns -s, -is, or -ēs Gen. caedis hostis urbis clientis -is Dat. caedī hostī urbī clientī -ī Acc. caedem hostem urbem clientem -em (-im) Abl. caede hoste urbe cliente -e (-ī)

1. «Avis», «cīvis», «fīnis», «ignis», «nāvis», have the abl. sing. in «-ī» or «-e».

2. «Turris» has accusative «turrim» and ablative «turrī» or «turre».

b. NEUTERS

«īnsigne», n., «animal», n., «calcar», decoration animal n., spur

STEMS «īnsigni-» «animāli-» «calcāri-» BASES «īnsign-» «animāl-» «calcār-»

«466.» THE FOURTH DECLENSION. U-STEMS

«adventus», m., «cornū», n., horn arrival STEMS «adventu-» «cornu-» BASES «advent-» «corn-»

TERMINATIONS SINGULAR MASC. NEUT. Nom. adventus cornū -us -ū Gen. adventūs cornūs -ūs -ūs Dat. adventuī (ū) cornū -uī (ū) -ū Acc. adventum cornū -um -ū Abl. adventū cornū -ū -ū

PLURAL Nom. adventūs cornua -ūs -ua Gen. adventuum cornuum -uum -uum Dat. adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus Acc. adventūs cornua -ūs -ua Abl. adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus

«467.» THE FIFTH DECLENSION. Ē-STEMS

«diēs», m., day «rēs», f., thing STEMS «diē-» «rē-» BASES «di-» «r-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS Nom. diēs rēs -ēs Gen. diēī reī -ē̆ī Dat. diēī reī -ē̆ī Acc. diem rem -em Abl. diē rē -ē

PLURAL Nom. diēs rēs -ēs Gen. diērum rērum -ērum Dat. diēbus rēbus -ēbus Acc. diēs rēs -ēs Abl. diēbus rēbus -ēbus

«468.» SPECIAL PARADIGMS

«deus», «domus», f., «vīs», f., «iter», m., god house strength n., way STEMS «deo-» «domu-» «vī-» and «iter-» and «vīri-» «itiner-» BASES «de-» «dom-» «v-» and «iter-» and «vīr-» «itiner-»

SINGULAR Nom. deus domus vīs iter Gen. deī domūs vīs (rare) itineris Dat. deō domuī, -ō vī (rare) itinerī Acc. deum domum vim iter Abl. deō domō, -ū vī itinere

PLURAL Nom. deī, dī domūs vīrēs itinera Gen. deōrum, deum domuum, -ōrum vīrium itinerum Dat. deīs, dīs domibus vīribus itineribus Acc. deōs domōs, -ūs vīrīs, -ēs itinera Abl. deīs, dīs domibus vīribus itineribus

a. The vocative singular of «deus» is like the nominative.

b. The locative of «domus» is «domī».

ADJECTIVES

«469.» FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. O- AND Ā-STEMS

a. ADJECTIVES IN -us

«bonus», good STEMS «bono-» m. and n., «bona-» f. BASE «bon-»

SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. bonus bona bonum Gen. bonī bonae bonī Dat. bonō bonae bonō Acc. bonum bonam bonum Abl. bonō bonā bonō

PLURAL Nom. bonī bonae bona Gen. bonōrum bonārum bonōrum Dat. bonīs bonīs bonīs Acc. bonōs bonās bona Abl. bonīs bonīs bonīs

b. ADJECTIVES IN «-er»

«līber», free STEMS «lībero-» m. and n., «līberā-» f. BASE «līber-»

SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. līber lībera līberum Gen. līberī līberae līberī Dat. līberō līberae līberō Acc. līberum līberam līberum Abl. līberō līberā līberō

PLURAL Nom. līberī līberae lībera Gen. līberōrum līberārum līberōrum Dat. līberīs līberīs līberīs Acc. līberōs līberās lībera Abl. līberīs līberīs līberīs

«pulcher», pretty STEMS «pulchro-» m. and n., «pulchrā-» f. BASE «pulchr-»

SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. pulcher pulchra pulchrum Gen. pulchrī pulchrae pulchrī Dat. pulchrō pulchrae pulchrō Acc. pulchrum pulchram pulchrum Abl. pulchrō pulchrā pulchrō

PLURAL Nom. pulchrī pulchrae pulchra Gen. pulchrōrum pulchrārum pulchrōrum Dat. pulchrīs pulchrīs pulchrīs Acc. pulchrōs pulchrās pulchra Abl. pulchrīs pulchrīs pulchrīs

«470.» THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES

«alius», another STEMS «alio-» m. and n., «aliā-» f. BASE «ali-»

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. alius alia aliud aliī aliae alia Gen. alīus alīus alīus aliōrum aliārum aliōrum Dat. aliī aliī aliī aliīs aliīs aliīs Acc. alium aliam aliud aliōs aliās alia Abl. aliō aliā aliō aliīs aliīs aliīs

«ūnus», one, only STEMS «ūno-» m. and n., «ūnā-» f. BASE «ūn-»

MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. ūnus ūna ūnum ūnī ūnae ūna Gen. ūnīus ūnīus ūnīus ūnōrum ūnārum ūnōrum Dat. ūnī ūnī ūnī ūnīs ūnīs ūnīs Acc. ūnum ūnam ūnum ūnōs ūnās ūna Abl. ūnō ūnā ūnō ūnīs ūnīs ūnīs

a. For the complete list see §108.

«471.» ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. I-STEMS

I. THREE ENDINGS

«ācer, ācris, ācre», keen, eager STEM «ācri-» BASE «ācr-»

II. TWO ENDINGS

«omnis, omne», every, all STEM «omni-» BASE «omn-»

III. ONE ENDING

«pār», equal STEM «pari-» BASE «par-»

1. Observe that all i-stem adjectives have «-ī» in the ablative singular.

[Transcriber’s Note: This sentence appears to be a footnote, but there is no footnote tag on the page.]

«472.» PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLES

«amāns», loving STEM «amanti-» BASE «amant-»

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. Nom. amāns amāns amantēs amantia Gen. amantis amantis amantium amantium Dat. amantī amantī amantibus amantibus Acc. amantem amāns amantīs, -ēs amantia Abl. amante, -ī amante, -ī amantibus amantibus

«iēns», going STEM «ienti-, eunti-» BASE «ient-, eunt-»

Nom. iēns iēns euntēs euntia Gen. euntis euntis euntium euntium Dat. euntī euntī euntibus euntibus Acc. euntem iēns euntīs, -ēs euntia Abl. eunte, -ī eunte, -ī euntibus euntibus

«473.» REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE MASC. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. altus (alto-) altior altius altissimus -a -um līber (lībero-) līberior līberius līberrimus -a -um pulcher (pulchro-) pulchrior pulchrius pulcherrimus -a -um audāx (audāci-) audācior audācius audācissimus -a -um brevis (brevi-) brevior brevius brevissimus -a -um ācer (ācri-) ācrior ācrius ācerrimus -a -um

«474.» DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES

«altior», higher

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. Nom. altior altius altiōrēs altiōra Gen. altiōris altiōris altiōrum altiōrum Dat. altiōrī altiōrī altiōribus altiōribus Acc. altiōrem altius altiōrēs altiōra Abl. altiōre altiōre altiōribus altiōribus

«plūs», more

Nom. ---- plūs plūrēs plūra Gen. ---- plūris plūrium plūrium Dat. ---- ---- plūribus plūribus Acc. ---- plūs plūrīs (-ēs) plūra Abl. ---- plūre plūribus plūribus

«475.» IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE bonus, -a, -um, melior, melius, optimus, -a, -um, good better best malus, -a, -um, peior, peius, pessimus, -a, -um, bad worse worst magnus, -a, -um, maior, maius, maximus, -a, -um, great greater greatest multus, -a, -um, ----, plūs, more plūrimus, -a, -um, much most parvus, -a, -um, minor, minus, minimus, -a, -um, small smaller smallest senex, senis, senior maximus nātū old iuvenis, -e, iūnior minimus nātū young vetus, veteris, vetustior, -ius veterrimus, -a, -um old facilis, -e, facilior, -ius facillimus, -a, -um easy difficilis, -e, difficilior, -ius difficillimus, -a, -um difficult similis, -e, similior, -ius simillimus, -a, -um similar dissimilis, -e, dissimilior, -ius dissimillimus, -a, -um dissimilar humilis, -e, low humilior, -ius humillimus, -a, -um gracilis, -e, gracilior, -ius gracillimus, -a, -um slender exterus, outward exterior, extrēmus, extimus, outer, exterior outermost, last īnferus, below īnferior, lower īnfimus, īmus, lowest posterus, posterior, later postrēmus, postumus, following last superus, above superior, suprēmus, summus, higher highest [[cis, citrā,]] citerior, hither citimus, hithermost [[on this side]] [[in, intrā,]] interior, inner intimus, inmost [[in, within]] [[prae, prō,]] prior, former prīmus, first [[before]] [[prope, near]] propior, nearer proximus, next [[ultrā, beyond]] ulterior, further ultimus, furthest

«476.» REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE cārē (cārus), dearly cārius cārissimē miserē (miser), wretchedly miserius miserrimē ācriter (ācer), sharply ācrius ācerrimē facile (facilis), easily facilius facillimē

«477.» IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE diū, long, a long time diūtius diūtissimē bene (bonus), well melius, better optimē, best male (malus), ill peius, worse pessimē, worst magnopere, greatly magis, more maximē, most multum (multus), much plūs, more plūrimum, most parum, little minus, less minimē, least saepe, often saepīus saepissimē

«478.» NUMERALS

The cardinal numerals are indeclinable excepting «ūnus», «duo», «trēs», the hundreds above one hundred, and «mīlle» used as a noun. The ordinals are declined like «bonus, -a, -um».

CARDINALS ORDINALS (How many) (In what order) 1, ūnus, -a, -um, one prīmus, -a, -um first 2, duo, duae, duo two secundus (or alter) second 3, trēs, tria three, tertius third, 4, quattuor etc. quārtus etc. 5, quīnque quīntus 6, sex sextus 7, septem septimus 8, octō octāvus 9, novem nōnus 10, decem decimus 11, ūndecim ūndecimus 12, duodecim duodecimus 13, tredecim (decem (et) trēs) tertius decimus 14, quattuordecim quārtus decimus 15, quīndecim quīntus decimus 16, sēdecim sextus decimus 17, septendecim septimus decimus 18, duodēvīgintī (octōdecim) duodēvīcēnsimus 19, ūndēvīgintī (novendecim) ūndēvīcēnsimus 20, vīgintī vīcēnsimus 21, {vīgintī ūnus or {vīcēnsimus prīmus or {ūnus et vīgintī, etc. {ūnus et vīcēnsimus, etc. 30, trīgintā trīcēnsimus 40, quadrāgintā quadrāgēnsimus 50, quīnquāgintā quīnquāgēnsimus 60, sexāgintā sexāgēnsimus 70, septuāgintā septuāgēnsimus 80, octōgintā octōgēnsimus 90, nōnāgintā nōnāgēnsimus 100, centum centēnsimus 101, centum (et) ūnus, etc. centēnsimus (et) prīmus, etc. 120, centum (et) vīgintī centēnsimus vīcēnsimus 121, centum (et) vīgintī ūnus, centēnsimus (et) vīcēnsimus prīmus, etc. etc. 200, ducentī, -ae, -a ducentēnsimus 300, trecentī trecentēnsimus 400, quadringentī quadringentēnsimus 500, quīngentī quīngentēnsimus 600, sescentī sescentēnsimus 700, septingentī septingentēnsimus 800, octingentī octingentēnsimus 900, nōngentī nōngentēnsimus 1000, mīlle mīllēnsimus

«479.» Declension of «duo», two, «trēs», three, and «mīlle», a thousand.

MASC. FEM. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT. SING. PLUR. N. duo duae duo trēs trīa mīlle mīlia G. duōrum duārum duōrum trium trium mīlle mīlium D. duōbus duābus duōbus tribus tribus mīlle mīlibus A. duōs duās duo trīs tria mīlle mīlia or duo duās duo or trēs tria A. duōbus duābus duōbus tribus tribus mīlle mīlibus

NOTE. «Mīlle» is used in the plural as a noun with a modifying genitive, and is occasionally so used in the nominative and accusative singular. For the declension of «ūnus» cf. §470.

PRONOUNS

«480.» PERSONAL

ego, I tū, you suī, of himself, etc. SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. Nom. ego nōs tū vōs ---- ---- Gen. meī nostrum, -trī tuī vestrum, -trī suī suī Dat. mihi nōbīs tibi vōbīs sibi sibi Acc. mē nōs tē vōs sē, sēsē sē, sēsē Abl. mē nōbīs tē vōbīs sē, sēsē sē, sēsē

Note that «suī» is always reflexive.

«481.» DEMONSTRATIVE

Demonstratives belong to the first and second declensions, but have the pronominal endings «-ī̆us» and «-ī» in the gen. and dat. sing.

«ipse», self

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. ipse ipsa ipsum ipsī ipsae ipsa Gen. ipsī´us ipsī´us ipsī´us ipsōrum ipsārum ipsōrum Dat. ipsī ipsī ipsī ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs Acc. ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsōs ipsās ipsa Abl. ipsō ipsā ipsō ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs

«hic», this (here), he

Nom. hic haec hoc hī hae haec Gen. huius huius huius hōrum hārum hōrum Dat. huic huic huic hīs hīs hīs Acc. hunc hanc hoc hōs hās haec Abl. hōc hāc hōc hīs hīs hīs

«iste», this, that (of yours), he

Nom. iste ista istud istī istae ista Gen. istī´us istī´us istī´us istōrum istārum istōrum Dat. istī istī istī istīs istīs istīs Acc. istum istam istud istōs istās ista Abl. istō istā istō istīs istīs istīs

«ille», that (yonder), he

Nom. ille illa illud illī illae illa Gen. illī´us illī´us illī´us illōrum illārum illōrum Dat. illī illī illī illīs illīs illīs Acc. illum illam illud illōs illās illa Abl. illō illā illō illīs illīs illīs

«is», this, that, he

Nom. is ea id iī, eī eae ea Gen. eius eius eius eōrum eārum eōrum Dat. eī eī eī iīs, eīs iīs, eīs iīs, eīs Acc. eum eam id eōs eās ea Abl. eō eā eō iīs, eīs iīs, eīs iīs, eīs

«īdem», the same

Nom. īdem e´adem idem iī´dem eae´dem e´adem eī´dem Gen. eius´dem eius´dem eius´dem eōrun´dem eārun´dem eōrun´dem Dat. eī´dem eī´dem eī´dem iīs´dem iīs´dem iīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem Acc. eun´dem ean´dem idem eōs´dem eās´dem e´adem Abl. eō´dem eā´dem eō´dem iīs´dem iīs´dem iīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem

NOTE. In the plural of «is» and «īdem» the forms with two i’s are preferred, the two i’s being pronounced as one.

«482.» RELATIVE

«quī», who, which, that

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. quī quae quod quī quae quae Gen. cuius cuius cuius quōrum quārum quōrum Dat. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus Acc. quem quam quod quōs quās quae Abl. quō quā quō quibus quibus quibus

«483.» INTERROGATIVE

«quis», substantive, who, what

SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. & FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. quis quid qui quae quae Gen. cuius cuius quōrum quārum quōrum Dat. cui cui quibus quibus quibus Acc. quem quid quōs quās quae Abl. quō quō quibus quibus quibus

The interrogative adjective «quī, quae, quod», is declined like the relative.

«484.» INDEFINITES

«quis» and «quī», as declined above,[1] are used also as indefinites (some, any). The other indefinites are compounds of «quis» and «quī».

«quisque», each

SUBSTANTIVE ADJECTIVE MASC. & FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. quisque quidque quisque quaeque quodque Gen. cuius´que cuius´que cuius´que cuius´que cuius´que Dat. cuique cuique cuique cuique cuique Acc. quemque quidque quemque quamque quodque Abl. quōque quōque quōque quāque quōque

[Footnote 1: «qua» is generally used instead of «quae» in the feminine nominative singular and in the neuter nominative and accusative plural.]

«485.» «quīdam», a certain one, a certain

Observe that in the neuter singular the adjective has «quoddam» and the substantive «quiddam».

SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. quīdam quaedam quoddam, quiddam (subst.) Gen. cuius´dam cuius´dam cuius´dam Dat. cuidam cuidam cuidam Acc. quendam quandam quoddam, quiddam (subst.) Abl. quōdam quādam quōdam

PLURAL Nom. quīdam quaedam quaedam Gen. quōrun´dam quārun´dam quōrun´dam Dat. quibus´dam quibus´dam quibus´dam Acc. quōsdam quāsdam quaedam Abl. quibus´dam quibus´dam quibus´dam

«486.» «quisquam», substantive, any one (at all)

MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. Nom. quisquam quicquam (quidquam) Gen. cuius´quam cuius´quam Dat. cuiquam cuiquam Acc. quemquam quicquam (quidquam) Abl. quōquam quōquam

«487.» «aliquis», substantive, some one. «aliquī», adjective, some

SINGULAR SUBSTANTIVE ADJECTIVE MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. aliquis aliquid aliquī aliqua aliquod Gen. alicu´ius alicu´ius alicu´ius alicu´ius alicu´ius Dat. alicui alicui alicui alicui alicui Acc. aliquem aliquid aliquem aliquam aliquod Abl. aliquō aliquō aliquō aliquā aliquō

PLURAL FOR BOTH SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. aliquī aliquae aliqua Gen. aliquō´rum aliquā´rum aliquō´rum Dat. ali´quibus ali´quibus ali´quibus Acc. aliquōs aliquās aliqua Abl. ali´quibus ali´quibus ali´quibus

a. «quis (quī)», any one, any, is the least definite (§297.b). «aliquis (aliquī)», some one, some, is more definite than «quis». «quisquam», any one (at all), and its adjective «ūllus», any, occur mostly with a negative, expressed or implied, and in clauses of comparison.

REGULAR VERBS

«488.» FIRST CONJUGATION. Ā-VERBS. AMŌ

PRINCIPAL PARTS «amō, amāre, amāvī, amātus» PRES. STEM amā- PERF. STEM amāv- PART. STEM amāt-

ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT I love, am loving, I am loved, etc. do love, etc. amō amāmus amor amāmur amās amātis amāris, -re amāminī amat amant amātur amantur

IMPERFECT I loved, was loving, I was loved, etc. did love, etc. amābam amābāmus amābar amābāmur amābās amābātis amābāris, -re amābāminī amābat amābant amābātur amābantur

FUTURE I shall love, etc. I shall be loved, etc. amābō amābimus amābor amābimur amābis amābitis amāberis, -re amābiminī amābit amābunt amābitur amābuntur

PERFECT I have loved, loved, I have been (was) loved, etc. did love, etc. amāvi amāvimus amātus, {sum amātī, {sumus amāvistī amāvistis -a, -um {es -ae, -a {estis amāvit amāvērunt, -re {est {sunt

PLUPERFECT I had loved, etc. I had been loved, etc. amāveram amāverāmus amātus, {eram amātī, {erāmus amāverās amāverātis -a, -um {erās -ae, -a {erātis amāverat amāverant {erat {erant

FUTURE PERFECT I shall have loved, etc. I shall have been loved, etc. amāverō amāverimus amātus, {erō amātī, {erimus amāveris amāveritis -a, -um {eris -ae, -a {eritis amāverit amāverint {erit {erunt

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT amem amēmus amer amēmur amēs amētis amēris, -re amēminī amet ament amētur amentur

IMPERFECT amārem amāremus amārer amārēmur amārēs amārētis amārēris, -re amārēminī amāret amārent amārētur amārentur

PERFECT amāverim amāverimus amātus, {sim amātī, {sīmus amāveris amāveritis -a, -um {sīs -ae, -a {sītis amāverit amāverint {sit {sint

PLUPERFECT amāvissem amāvissēmus amātus, {essem amātī, {essēmus amāvissēs amāvissētis -a, -um {essēs -ae, -a {essētis amāvisset amāvissent {esset {essent

IMPERATIVE PRESENT amā, love thou amāre, be thou loved amāte, love ye amāminī, be ye loved

FUTURE amātō, thou shalt love amātor, thou shalt be loved amātō, he shall love amātor, he shall be loved amātōte, you shall love ---- amantō, they shall love amantor, they shall be loved

INFINITIVE Pres. amāre, to love amārī, to be loved Perf. amāvisse, amātus, -a, -um esse, to have loved to have been loved Fut. amātūrus, -a, -um [[amātum īrī]], to be about to be loved esse, to be about to love

PARTICIPLES Pres. amāns, -antis, Pres. ---- loving Fut. amātūrus, -a, -um, Gerundive[1] amandus, -a, -um, to be about to love loved Perf. ---- Perf. amātus, -a, -um, having been loved, loved

GERUND Nom. ---- Gen. amandī, of loving Dat. amandō, for loving Acc. amandum, loving Abl. amandō, by loving

SUPINE (Active Voice) Acc. [[amātum]], to love Abl. [[amātū]], to love, in the loving

[Footnote 1: Sometimes called the future passive participle.]

«489.» SECOND CONJUGATION. Ē-VERBS. MONEŌ

PRINCIPAL PARTS «moneō, monēre, monuī, monitus» PRES. STEM monē- PERF. STEM monu- PART. STEM monit-

ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT I advise, etc., I am advised, etc. moneō monēmus moneor monēmur monēs monētis monēris, -re monēminī monet monent monētur monentur

IMPERFECT I was advising, etc., I was advised, etc. monēbam monēbāmus monēbar monēbāmur monēbās monēbātis monēbāris, -re monēbāminī monēbat monēbant monēbātur monēbāntur

FUTURE I shall advise, etc., I shall be advised, etc. monēbō monēbimus monēbor monēbimur monēbis monēbitis monēberis, -re monēbiminī monēbit monēbunt monēbitur monēbuntur

PERFECT I have advised, I have been (was) advised, etc. I advised, etc. monuī monuimus {sum {sumus monuistī monuistis monitus, {es monitī, {estis monuit monuērunt, -re -a, -um {est -ae, -a {sunt

PLUPERFECT I had advised, etc., I had been advised, etc.

monueram monuerāmus {eram {erāmus monuerās monuerātis monitus, {eras monitī, {eratis monuerat monuerant -a, -um {erat -ae, -a {erant

FUTURE PERFECT I shall have advised, I shall have been advised, etc. etc. monuerō monuerimus {erō {erimus monueris monuerītis monitus, {eris monitī, {eritis monuerit monuerīnt -a, -um {erit -ae, -a {erunt

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT moneam moneāmus monear moneāmur moneās moneātis moneāris, -re moneāminī moneat moneant moneātur moneantur

IMPERFECT monērem monērēmus monērer monērēmur monērēs monērētis monērēris, -re monērēminī monēret monērent monērētur monērentur

PERFECT monuerim monuerimus {sim {sīmus monueris monueritis monitus, {sīs monitī, {sītis monuerit monuerint -a, -um {sit -ae, -a {sint

PLUPERFECT monuissem monuissēmus {essem {essēmus monuissēs monuissētis monitus, {essēs monitī, {essētis monuisset monuissent -a, -um {esset -ae, -a {essent

IMPERATIVE PRESENT monē, advise thou monēre, be thou advised monēte, advise ye monēminī, be ye advised

FUTURE monētō, thou shall monētor, thou shalt be advised advise monētō, he shall advise monētor, he shall be advised monētōte, you shall advise ---- monentō, they shall monentor, they shall be advised advise

INFINITIVE Pres. monēre, to advise monērī, to be advised Perf. monuisse, to have monitus, -a, -um esse, advised to have been advised Fut. monitūrus, -a, -um [[monitum īrī]], esse, to be to be about to be advised about to advise

PARTICIPLES Pres. monēns, -entis, Pres. ---- advising Fut. monitūrus, -a, -um, Ger. monendus, -a, -um, about to advise to be advised Perf. ---- Perf. monitus, -a, -um, having been advised, advised

GERUND Nom. ---- Gen. monendī, of advising Dat. monendō, for advising Acc. monendum, advising Abl. monendō, by advising

SUPINE (Active Voice) Acc. [[monitum]], to advise Abl. [[monitū]], to advise, in the advising

«490.» THIRD CONJUGATION. Ĕ-VERBS. REGŌ

PRINCIPAL PARTS «regō, regere, rexī, rēctus» PRES. STEM rege- PERF. STEM rēx- PART. STEM rēct-

ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT I rule, etc. I am ruled, etc. regō regimus re´gor re´gimur regis regitis re´geris, -re regi´minī regit regunt re´gitur regun´tur

IMPERFECT I was ruling, etc. I was ruled, etc. regēbam regēbāmus regē´bar regēbā´mur regēbās regēbātis regēbā´ris, -re regēbā´minī regēbat regēbant regēbā´tur regēban´tur

FUTURE I shall rule, etc. I shall be ruled, etc. regam regēmus re´gar regē´mur regēs regētis regē´ris, -re regē´minī reget regent regē´tur regen´tur

PERFECT I have ruled, etc. I have been ruled, etc. rēxī rēximus {sum {sumus rēxistī rēxistis rēctus, {es rēctī, {estis rēxit rēxērunt, -re -a, -um {est -ae, -a {sunt

PLUPERFECT I had ruled, etc. I had been ruled, etc. rēxeram rēxerāmus {eram {erāmus rēxerās rēxerātis rēctus, {eras rēctī, {erātis rēxerat rēxerant -a, -um {erat -ae, -a {erant

FUTURE PERFECT I shall have ruled, etc. I shall have been ruled, etc. rēxerō rēxerimus {erō {erimus rēxeris rēxeritis rēctus, {eris rēctī, {eritis rēxerit rēxerint -a, -um {erit -ae, -a {erunt

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT regam regāmus regar regāmur regās regātis regāris, -re regāminī regat regant regātur regantur

IMPERFECT regerem regerēmus regerer regerēmur regerēs regerētis regerēris, -re regerēminī regeret regerent regerētur regerentur

PERFECT rēxerim rēxerimus {sim {sīmus rēxeris rēxeritis rēctus, {sīs rēcti, {sītis rēxerit rēxerint -a, -um {sit -ae, -a {sint

PLUPERFECT rēxissem rēxissēmus {essem {essēmus rēxissēs rēxissētis rēctus, {essēs rēcti, {essētis rēxisset rēxissent -a, -um {esset -ae, -a {essent

IMPERATIVE PRESENT rege, rule thou regere, be thou ruled regite, rule ye regiminī, be ye ruled

FUTURE regitō, thou shalt rule regitor, thou shalt be ruled regitō he shall rule regitor, he shall be ruled regitōte, ye shall rule ---- reguntō, they shall rule reguntor, they shall be ruled

INFINITIVE Pres. regere, to rule regī, to be ruled Perf. rēxisse, to have rēctus, -a, -um esse, ruled to have been ruled Fut. rēctūrus, -a, -um [[rēctum īrī]], esse, to be to be about to be ruled about to rule

PARTICIPLES Pres. regēns, -entis, Pres. ---- ruling Fut. rēctūrus, -a, -um, Ger. regendus, -a, -um, to be ruled about to rule Perf. ---- Perf. rēctus, -a, -um, having been ruled, ruled

GERUND Nom. ---- Gen. regendī, of ruling Dat. regendō, for ruling Acc. regendum, ruling Abl. regendō, by ruling

SUPINE (Active Voice) Acc. [[rēctum]], to rule Abl. [[rēctū]], to rule, in the ruling

«491.» FOURTH CONJUGATION. Ī-VERBS. AUDIŌ

PRINCIPAL PARTS «audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus» PRES. STEM audī- PERF. STEM audīv- PART. STEM audīt-

ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT I hear, etc. I am heard, etc. audiō audīmus au´dior audī´mur audīs audītis audī´ris, -re audī´minī audit audiunt audī´tur audiun´tur

IMPERFECT I was hearing, etc. I was heard, etc. audiēbam audiēbāmus audiē´bar audiēbā´mur audiēbās audiēbātis audiēbā´ris, -re audiēbā´minī audiēbat audiēbant audiēbā´tur audiēban´tur

FUTURE I shall hear, etc. I shall be heard, etc. audiam audiēmus au´diar audiē´mur audiēs audiētis audiē´ris, -re audiē´minī audiet audient audiē´tur audien´tur

PERFECT I have heard, etc. I have been heard, etc. audīvī audīvimus {sum {sumus audīvistī audīvistis audītus, {es audītī, {estis audīvit audīvērunt, -re -a, -um {est -ae, -a {sunt

PLUPERFECT I had heard, etc. I had been heard, etc. audīveram audīverāmus {eram {erāmus audīverās audīverātis audītus, {eras audītī, {erātis audīverat audīverant -a, -um {erat -ae, -a {erant

FUTURE PERFECT I shall have heard, etc. I shall have been heard, etc. audīverō audīverimus {erō {erimus audīveris audīveritis audītus, {eris audītī, {eritis audīverit audīverint -a, -um {erit -ae, -a {erunt

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT audiam audiāmus audiar audiāmur audiās audiātis audiāris, -re audiāminī audiat audiant audiātur audiantur

IMPERFECT audīrem audīrēmus audīrer audīrēmur audīrēs audīrētis audīrēris, -re audīrēminī audīret audīrent audīrētur audīrentur

PERFECT audīverim audīverimus {sim {sīmus audīveris audīveritis audītus, {sīs audīti, {sītis audīverit audīverint -a, -um {sit -ae, -a {sint

PLUPERFECT audīvissem audīvissēmus {essem {essēmus audīvissēs audīvissētis audītus, {essēs audīti, {essētis audīvisset audīvissent -a, -um {esset -ae, -a {essent

IMPERATIVE PRESENT PRESENT audī, hear thou audīre, be thou heard audīte, hear ye audīminī, be ye heard

FUTURE audītō, thou shalt hear audītor, thou shalt be heard audītō he shall hear audītor, he shall be heard audītōte, ye shall hear ---- auduntō, they shall hear audiuntor, they shall be heard

INFINITIVE Pres. audīre, to hear audīrī, to be heard Perf. audīvisse, audītus, -a, -um esse, to have heard to have been heard Fut. audītūrus, -a, -um [[audītum īrī]], esse, to be to be about to be heard about to hear

PARTICIPLES Pres. audiēns, -entis, Pres. ---- hearing Fut. audītūrus, -a, -um, Ger. audiendus, -a, -um, to be heard about to hear Perf. ---- Perf. audītus, -a, -um, having been heard, heard

GERUND Nom. ---- Gen. audiendī, of hearing Dat. audiendō, for hearing Acc. audiendum, hearing Abl. audiendō, by hearing

SUPINE (Active Voice) Acc. [[audītum]], to hear Abl. [[audītu]], to hear, in the hearing

«492.» THIRD CONJUGATION. VERBS IN -IŌ. CAPIŌ

PRINCIPAL PARTS «capiō, capere, cēpī, captus» PRES. STEM cape- PERF. STEM cēp- PART. STEM capt-

ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT capiō capimus ca´pior ca´pimur capis capitis ca´peris, -re capi´minī capit capiunt ca´pitur capiun´tur

IMPERFECT capiēbam capiebamus capiē´bar capiēbā´mur capiēbas capiēbātis capiēba´ris, -re capiēbā´minī capiēbat capiēbant capiēbā´tur capieban´tur

FUTURE capiam capiēmus ca´piar capiē´mur capiēs capiētis capiē´ris, -re capiē´minī capiet capient capiē´tur capien´tur

PERFECT cēpī, cēpistī, cēpit, etc. captus, -a, -um sum, es, est, etc.

PLUPERFECT cēperam, cēperās, cēperat, captus, -a, -um eram, erās, erat, etc. etc.

FUTURE PERFECT cēperō, cēperis, cēperit, captus, -a, -um erō, eris, erit, etc. etc.

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT capiam, capiās, capiat, capiar, -iāris, -re, -iātur, etc. etc. IMPERFECT caperem, caperēs, caperet, caperer, -erēris, -re, -erētur, etc. etc. PERFECT cēperim, cēperis, cēperit, captus, -a, -um sim, sīs, sit, etc. etc. PLUPERFECT cēpissem, cēpissēs, captus, -a, -um essem, essēs, esset, cēpisset, etc. etc.

IMPERATIVE PRESENT 2d Pers. cape capite capere capiminī

FUTURE 2d Pers. capitō capitōte capitor ---- 3rd Pers. capitō capiuntō capitor capiuntor

INFINITIVE Pres. capere capī Perf. cēpisse captus, -a, -um esse Fut. captūrus, -a, -um [[captum īrī]] esse

PARTICIPLES Pres. capiēns, -ientis Pres. ---- Fut. captūrus, -a, -um Ger. capiendus, -a, -um Perf. ---- Perf. captus, -a, -um

GERUND Gen. capiendī etc.

SUPINE (Active Voice) Acc. [[captum]] Abl. [[captū]]

«493.» DEPONENT VERBS

[Transcriber’s Note: Asterisks in this section are from the original text (“marked with a star”).]

PRINCIPAL PARTS

I. «hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum», urge II. «vereor, verērī, veritus sum», fear III. «sequor, sequī, secūtus sum», follow IV. «partior, partīrī, partītus sum», share, divide

NOTE. In addition to the passive conjugation, deponent verbs use certain forms from the active. These are marked with a star. Deponent -iō verbs of the third conjugation are inflected like the passive of capiō.

INDICATIVE Pres. hortor vereor sequor partior hortāris, -re verēris, -re sequeris, -re partīris, -re hortātur verētur sequitur partītur hortāmur verēmur sequimur partīmur hortāminī verēminī sequiminī partīminī hortantur verentur sequuntur partiuntur Impf. hortābar verēbar sequēbar partiēbar Fut. hortābor verēbor sequar partiar Perf. hortātus sum veritus sum secūtus sum partītus sum Plup. hortātus eram veritus eram secūtus eram partītus eram F.P. hortātus erō veritus erō secūtus erō partītus erō

SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. horter verear sequar partiar Impf. hortārer verērer sequerer partīrer Perf. hortātus sim veritus sim secūtus sim partītus sim Plup. hortātus essem veritus essem secūtus essem partītus essem

IMPERATIVE Pres. hortāre verēre sequere partīre Fut. hortātor verētor sequitor partītor

INFINITIVE Pres. hortārī verērī sequī partīrī Perf. hortātus esse veritus esse secūtus esse partītus esse Fut. *hortātūrus *veritūrus *secūtūrus *partītūrus esse esse esse esse

PARTICIPLES Pres. *hortāns *verēns *sequēns *partiēns Fut. *hortāturus *veritūrus *secūtūrus *partītūrus Perf. hortātus veritus secūtus partītus Ger. hortandus verendus sequendus partiendus

GERUND *hortandī, etc. *verendī, etc. *sequendī, etc. *partiendī, etc.

SUPINE *[[hortātus, -tū]] *[[veritum, -tū]] *[[secūtum, -tū]] *[[partītum, -tū]]

«494.» «sum», am, be

PRINCIPAL PARTS «sum, esse, fuī, futūrus» PRES. STEM es- PERF. STEM fu- PART. STEM fut-

INDICATIVE PRESENT SINGULAR PLURAL sum, I am sumus, we are es, thou art estis, you are est, he (she, it) is sunt, they are

IMPERFECT eram, I was erāmus, we were erās, thou wast erātis, you were erat, he was erant, they were

FUTURE erō, I shall be erimus, we shall be eris, thou wilt be eritis, you will be erit, he will be erunt, they will be

PERFECT fuī, I have been, was fuimus, we have been, were fuistī, thou hast been, wast fuistis, you have been, were fuit, he has been, was fuērunt, fuēre, they have been, were

PLUPERFECT fueram, I had been fuerāmus, we had been fuerās, thou hadst been fuerātis, you had been fuerat, he had been fuerant, they had been

FUTURE PERFECT fuerō, I shall have been fuerimus, we shall have been fueris, thou wilt have been fueritis, you will have been fuerit, he will have been fuerint, they will have been

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT IMPERFECT SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL sim sīmus essem essēmus sīs sītis essēs essētis sit sint esset essent

PERFECT PLUPERFECT fuerim fuerimus fuissem fuissēmus fueris fueritis fuissēs fuissētis fuerit fuerint fuisset fuissent

IMPERATIVE PRESENT 2d Pers. Sing. es, be thou 2d Pers. Plur. este, be ye FUTURE 2d Pers. Sing. estō, thou shalt be 3d Pers. Sing. estō, he shall be 2d Pers. Plur. estōte, ye shall be 3d Pers. Plur. suntō, they shall be

INFINITIVE Pres. esse, to be Perf. fuisse, to have been Fut. futūrus, -a, -um esse or «fore», to be about to be

PARTICIPLE futūrus, -a, -um, about to be

«495.» «possum», be able, can

PRINCIPAL PARTS «possum, posse, potuī, ----»

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL Pres. possum pos´sumus possim possī´mus potes potes´tis possīs possī´tis potest possunt possit possint Impf. poteram poterāmus possem possē´mus Fut. poterō poterimus ---- ---- Perf. potuī potuimus potuerim potuerimus Plup. potueram potuerāmus potuissem potuissēmus F.P. potuerō potuerimus ---- ----

INFINITIVE Pres. posse Perf. potuisse

PARTICIPLE Pres. potens, gen. -entis, (adjective) powerful

«496.» «prōsum», benefit

PRINCIPAL PARTS «prōsum, prōdesse, prōfuī, prōfutūrus» PRES. STEM «prōdes-» PERF. STEM «prōfu-» PART. STEM «prōfut-»

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL Pres. prōsum prō´sumus prōsim prōsī´mus prōdes prōdes´tis prōsīs prōsī´tis prōdest prōsunt prōsit prōsint Impf. prōderam prōderāmus prōdessem prodessē´mus Fut. prōderō prōderimus ---- ---- Perf. prōfuī prōfuimus prōfuerim prōfuerimus Plup. prōfueram prōfuerāmus prōfuissem prōfuissēmus F.P. prōfuerō prōfuerimus ---- ----

IMPERATIVE Pres. 2d Pers. prōdes, prōdeste Fut. 2d Pers. prōdestō, prōdestōte

INFINITIVE Pres. prōdesse Perf. prōfuisse Fut. prōfutūrus, -a, -um esse

FUTURE PARTICIPLE prōfutūrus, -a, -um

«497.» [ «volō», «nōlō», «mālō»]

«Nōlō» and «mālō» are compounds of «volō». «Nōlō» is for «ne» (not) + «volō», and «mālō» for «mā» (from «magis», more) + «volō». The second person «vīs» is from a different root.

PARTICIPLE Pres. volēns, -entis nōlēns, -entis ----

«498.» «ferō», bear, carry, endure

SUPINE (Active Voice) Acc. [[lātum]] Abl. [[lātū]]

«499.» eō, go

INFINITIVE Pres. īre Perf. īsse (īvisse) Fut. itūrus, -a, -um esse

SUPINE Acc. [[itum]] Abl. [[itū]]

a. The verb «eō» is used impersonally in the third person singular of the passive, as «ītur», «itum est», etc.

b. In the perfect system the forms with «v» are very rare.

«500.» «fīō», passive of «faciō»; be made, become, happen

INFINITIVE PARTICIPLES Pres. fierī Perf. factus, -a, -um Perf. factus, -a, -um esse Ger. faciendus, -a, -um Fut. [[factum īrī]]

[Illustration: CASTRA MURO FOSSAQUE MUNIUNTUR]

APPENDIX II

«501.» RULES OF SYNTAX

NOTE. The rules of syntax are here classified and numbered consecutively. The number of the text section in which the rule appears is given at the end of each.

Nominative Case

«1.» The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative and answers the question Who? or What? §36.

Agreement

«2.» A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject. §28.

«3.» A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb. §76.

«4.» An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains. §81.

«5.» Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. §65.

«6.» A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb. §215.a.

«7.» A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own clause. §224.

Prepositions

«8.» A noun governed by a preposition must be in the accusative or ablative case. §52.

Genitive Case

«9.» The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the genitive and answers the question Whose? §38.

«10.» The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, especially after the forms of «sum», and is then called the predicate genitive. §409.

«11.» Words denoting a part are often used with the genitive of the whole, known as the partitive genitive. §331.

«12.» Numerical descriptions of measure are expressed by the genitive with a modifying adjective. §443.

Dative Case

«13.» The indirect object of a verb is in the dative. §45.

«14.» The dative of the indirect object is used with the intransitive verbs «crēdō», «faveō», «noceō», «pāreō», «persuādeō», «resistō», «studeō», and others of like meaning. §154.

«15.» Some verbs compounded with «ad», «ante», «con», «dē», «in», «inter», «ob», «post», «prae», «prō», «sub», «super», admit the dative of the indirect object. Transitive compounds may take both an accusative and a dative. §426.

«16.» The dative is used with adjectives to denote the object toward which the given quality is directed. Such are, especially, those meaning near, also fit, friendly, pleasing, like, and their opposites. §143.

«17.» The dative is used to denote the purpose or end for which; often with another dative denoting the person or thing affected. §437.

Accusative Case

«18.» The direct object of a transitive verb is in the accusative and answers the question Whom? or What? §37.

«19.» The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative. §214.

«20.» The place to which is expressed by «ad» or «in» with the accusative. Before names of towns, small islands, «domus», and «rūs» the preposition is omitted. §§263, 266.

«21.» Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the accusative. §336.

«22.» Verbs of making, choosing, calling, showing, and the like, may take a predicate accusative along with the direct object. With the passive voice the two accusatives become nominatives. §392.

Ablative Case

«23.» Cause is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what? §102.

«24.» Means is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what? or With what? §103.

«25.» Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative with «cum». This answers the question With whom? §104.

«26.» The ablative with «cum» is used to denote the manner of an action. «Cum» may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the ablative. This answers the question How? or In what manner? §105.

«27.» With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the measure of difference. §317.

«28.» The ablative of a noun or pronoun with a present or perfect participle in agreement is used to express attendant circumstance. This is called the ablative absolute. §381.

«29.» 1. Descriptions of physical characteristics are expressed by the ablative with a modifying adjective. §444.

2. Descriptions involving neither numerical statements nor physical characteristics may be expressed by either the genitive or the ablative with a modifying adjective. §445.

«30.» The ablative is used to denote in what respect something is true. §398.

«31.» The place from which is expressed by «ā» or «ab», «dē», «ē» or «ex» with the separative ablative. This answers the question Whence? Before names of towns, small islands, «domus», and «rūs» the preposition is omitted. §§264, 266.

«32.» Words expressing separation or deprivation require an ablative to complete their meaning. This is called the ablative of separation. §180.

«33.» The word expressing the person from whom an action starts, when not the subject, is put in the ablative with the preposition «ā» or «ab». This is called the ablative of the personal agent. §181.

«34.» The comparative degree, if «quam» is omitted, is followed by the separative ablative. §309.

«35.» The time when or within which anything happens is expressed by the ablative without a preposition. §275.

«36.» 1. The place at or in which is expressed by the ablative with «in». This answers the question Where? Before names of towns, small islands, and «rūs» the preposition is omitted. §§265, 266.

2. Names of towns and small islands, if singular and of the first or second declension, and the word «domus» express the place in which by the locative. §268.

Gerund and Gerundive

«37.» 1. The gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns. §406.1.

2. The gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object, excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual. §406.2.

«38.» The accusative of the gerund or gerundive with «ad», or the genitive with «causā», is used to express purpose. §407.

Moods and Tenses of Verbs

«39.» Primary tenses are followed by primary tenses, and secondary by secondary. §358.

«40.» The subjunctive is used in a dependent clause to express the purpose of the action in the principal clause. §349.

«41.» A substantive clause of purpose with the subjunctive is used as object with verbs of commanding, urging, asking, persuading, or advising, where in English we should usually have the infinitive. §366.

«42.» Verbs of fearing are followed by a substantive clause of purpose introduced by «ut» (that not) or «nē» (that or lest). §372.

«43.» Consecutive clauses of result are introduced by «ut» or «ut nōn», and have the verb in the subjunctive. §385.

«44.» Object clauses of result with «ut» or «ut nōn» are found after verbs of effecting or bringing about. §386.

«45.» A relative clause with the subjunctive is often used to describe an antecedent. This is called the subjunctive of characteristic or description. §390.

«46.» The conjunction «cum» means when, since, or although. It is followed by the subjunctive unless it means when and its clause fixes the time at which the main action took place. §396.

«47.» When a direct statement becomes indirect, the principal verb is changed to the infinitive, and its subject nominative becomes subject accusative of the infinitive. §416.

«48.» The accusative-with-infinitive construction in indirect statements is found after verbs of saying, telling, knowing, thinking, and perceiving. §419.

«49.» A present indicative of a direct statement becomes present infinitive of the indirect, a past indicative becomes perfect infinitive, and a future indicative becomes future infinitive. §418.

«50.» In an indirect question the verb is in the subjunctive and its tense is determined by the law for tense sequence. §432.

APPENDIX III

REVIEWS[1]

[Footnote 1: It is suggested that each of these reviews be assigned for a written test.]

[Transcriber’s Note: In this Review section, the lists of English words for translation may not be in the same order as in the original.]

I. REVIEW OF VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR THROUGH LESSON VIII

«502.» Give the English of the following words:[1]

NOUNS agricola «gallīna» ancilla iniūria «aqua» «īnsula» «casa» «lūna» «causa» «nauta» cēna «pecūnia» «corōna» puella «dea» «pugna» domina «sagitta» fābula «silva» «fera» «terra» «fīlia» «tuba» «fortūna» «via» «fuga» «victōria»

ADJECTIVES «alta» «magna» «bona» «mala» «clāra» «nova» «grāta» «parva» «lāta» «pulchra» «longa» «sōla»

VERBS amat «necat» «dat» «nūntiat» «est» «parat» habitat «portat» «labōrat» «pugnat» «laudat» «sunt» nārrat «vocat»

PREPOSITIONS «ā» or «ab» «ad» «cum» «dē» «ē» or «ex» «in»

PRONOUNS «mea» «tua» «quis» «cuius» «cui» «quem» «quid»

ADVERBS «cūr» «deinde» «nōn» «ubi»

CONJUNCTIONS «et» quia «quod»

INTERROGATIVE PARTICLE «-ne»

[Footnote 1: Proper nouns and proper adjectives are not repeated in the reviews. Words used in Cassar’s “Gallic War” are in heavy type.]

«503.» Give the Latin of the following words:[1]

Underline the words you do not remember. Do not look up a single word till you have gone through the entire list. Then drill on the words you have underlined.

flight wide story tells new money lives (verb) calls away from with who your why then, in the next place forest daughter wreath to whom deep, high fortune dinner famous out from labors (verb) my kills where not trumpet in lady, mistress and whom sailor island farmer goddess what wild beast way praises (verb) bad alone loves pleasing pretty prepares water are great to is because announces arrow injury, wrong cottage battle (noun) gives small girl fights (verb) good maid carries down from chicken long victory cause land whose

[Footnote 1: The translations of words used in Cæsar are in italics.]

«504.» «Review Questions.» How many syllables has a Latin word? How are words divided into syllables? What is the ultima? the penult? the antepenult? When is a syllable short? When is a syllable long? What is the law of Latin accent? Define the subject of a sentence; the predicate; the object; the copula. What is inflection? declension? conjugation? What is the ending of the verb in the third person singular, and what in the plural? What does the form of a noun show? Name the Latin cases. What case is used for the subject? the direct object? the possessor? What relation is expressed by the dative case? Give the rule for the indirect object. How are questions answered in Latin? What is a predicate adjective? an attributive adjective? What is meant by agreement? Give the rule for the agreement of the adjective. What are the three relations expressed by the ablative? What can you say of the position of the possessive pronoun? the modifying genitive? the adjective? What is the base? What is grammatical gender? What is the rule for gender in the first declension? What are the general principles of Latin word order?

«505.» Fill out the following summary of the first declension:

THE FIRST OR Ā-DECLENSION 1. Ending in the nominative singular 2. Rule for gender 3. Case terminations a. Singular b. Plural 4. Irregular nouns

II. REVIEW OF LESSONS IX-XVII

«506.» Give the English of the following words:

NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION «agrī cultūra» «galea» «cōnstantia» «inopia» «cōpia» «lacrima» «dīligentia» «lōrīca» «fāma» «patria» fēmina «praeda»

NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION «ager» «līberī» «amīcus» magister «arma» (plural) «mūrus» «auxilium» «numerus» «bellum» «oppidānus» «carrus» «oppidum» «castrum» «pīlum» «cibus» «populus» «cōnsilium» «praemium» «domicilium» «proelium» dominus «puer» «equus» «scūtum» «fīlius» «servus» fluvius «studium» «frūmentum» «tēlum» «gladius» «vīcus» «lēgātus» «vir»

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «aeger, aegra, aegrum» «alius, alia, aliud» «alter, altera, alterum» «armātus, -a, -um» «crēber, crēbra, crēbrum» «dūrus, -a, -um» «fīnitimus, -a, -um» «īnfīrmus, -a, -um» «legiōnārius, -a, -um» «līber, lībera, līberum» «mātūrus, -a, -um» «meus, -a, -um» «miser, misera, miserum» «multus, -a, -um» «neuter, neutra, neutrum» «noster, nostra, nostrum» «nūllus, -a, -um» «pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum» «sōlus, -a, -um» «suus, -a, -um» «tōtus, -a, -um» «tuus, -a, -um» «ūllus, -a, -um» «ūnus, -a, -um» «uter, utra, utrum» validus, -a, -um «vester, vestra, vestrum»

VERBS arat «cūrat» «dēsīderat» «mātūrat» «properat»

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN «is, ea, id»

CONJUNCTIONS «an» «-que» «sed»

ADVERBS «iam» quō «saepe»

PREPOSITION «apud»

«507.» Give the Latin of the following words:

sword shield (noun) corselet whole man it your (plural) aid (noun) hasten legionary but weak among arms tear (noun) master (of school) village friend strong neighboring long for sick and (enclitic) lieutenant often field want (noun) report, rumor which (of two) abode care for boy or (in a question) his own whither alone wagon prize (noun) townsman master (owner) wretched carefulness ripe plenty war troops number plan (noun) my people free (adj.) beautiful children no (adj.) wall our grain battle weapon spear one food plow (verb) steadiness this or that fatherland already town helmet fort river camp zeal neither (of two) any much he agriculture son other slave the other (of two) your (singular) hard she booty woman frequent horse armed

«508.» «Review Questions.» How many declensions are there? What three things must be known about a noun before it can be declined? What three cases of neuter nouns are always alike, and in what do they end in the plural? What two plural cases are always alike? When is the vocative singular not like the nominative? What is a predicate noun? With what does it agree? What is an appositive? Give the rule for the agreement of an appositive. How can we tell whether a noun in «-er» is declined like «puer» or like «ager»? Decline «bonus», «līber», «pulcher». How can we tell whether an adjective in «-er» is declined like «līber» or like «pulcher»? Why must we say «nauta bonus» and not «nauta bona»? Name the Latin possessive pronouns. How are they declined? With what does the possessive pronoun agree? When do we use «tuus» and when «vester»? Why is «suus» called a reflexive possessive? What is the non-reflexive possessive of the third person? When are possessives omitted? What four uses of the ablative case are covered by the relations expressed in English by with? Give an illustration in Latin of the ablative of manner; of the ablative of cause; of the ablative of means; of the ablative of accompaniment. What ablative regularly has «cum»? What ablative sometimes has «cum»? What uses of the ablative never have «cum»? Name the nine pronominal adjectives, with their meanings. Decline «alius», «nūllus». Decline «is». What does «is» mean as a demonstrative adjective or pronoun? What other important use has it?

«509.» Fill out the following summary of the second declension:

THE SECOND OR O-DECLENSION 1. Endings in the nominative 2. Rule for gender 3. Case terminations of nouns in «-us» a. Singular b. Plural a. The vocative singular of nouns in «-us» 4. Case terminations of nouns in «-um» a. Singular b. Plural 5. Peculiarities of nouns in «-er» and «-ir» 6. Peculiarities of nouns in «-ius» and «-ium»

III. REVIEW OF LESSONS XVIII-XXVI

«510.» Give the English of the following words:

NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION «disciplīna» rēgīna «fōrma» superbia «poena» «trīstitia» «potentia»

NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION lūdus «ōrnāmentum» sacrum «socius» «verbum»

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «amīcus» īrātus «antīquus» «laetus» «fīnitimus» «molestus» «grātus» «perpetuus» «idōneus» «proximus» «inimīcus» «septem» «interfectus» «superbus»

ADVERBS hodiē «ibi» «maximē» mox «nunc» «nūper»

CONJUNCTIONS «etiam» «nōn sōlum ... sed etiam»

PERSONAL PRONOUN «ego»

VERBS CONJ. I volō, -āre

CONJ. II «dēleō, -ēre» «noceō, -ēre» «doceō, -ēre» «pāreō, -ēre» «faveō, -ēre» «persuādeō, -ēre» «habeō, -ēre» sedeō, -ēre «iubeō, -ēre» «studeō, -ēre» «moneō, -ēre» «videō, -ēre» «moveō, -ēre»

CONJ. III «agō, -ere» «fugiō, -ere» «capiō, -ere» «iaciō, -ere» «crēdō, -ere» «mittō, -ere» «dīcō, -ere» rapiō, -ere «dūcō, -ere» «regō, -ere» «faciō, -ere» «resistō, -ere»

CONJ. IV «audiō, -īre» «mūniō, -īre» «reperiō, -īre» «veniō, -īre»

IRREGULAR VERB «sum, esse»

«511.» «Give the Latin of the following words.» In the case of verbs always give the first form and the present infinitive.

ancient power come make, do resist injure see now be annoying fly lead I move proud soon word glad sadness punishment find believe rule (verb) advise be eager for especially, most of all not only...but also angry seven beauty ally, companion say pride command (verb) fortify there send slain sit training also take school have hear to-day hurl unfriendly persuade drive only favor (verb) nearest suitable sacred rite pleasing queen teach flee neighboring obey destroy lately friendly constant seize ornament

«512.» «Review Questions.» What is conjugation? Name two important differences between conjugation in Latin and in English. What is tense? What is mood? What are the Latin moods? When do we use the indicative mood? Name the six tenses of the indicative. What are personal endings? Name those you have had. Inflect sum in the three tenses you have learned. How many regular conjugations are there? How are they distinguished? How is the present stem found? What tenses are formed from the present stem? What is the tense sign of the imperfect? What is the meaning of the imperfect? What is the tense sign of the future in the first two conjugations? in the last two? Before what letters is a final long vowel of the stem shortened? What are the three possible translations of a present, as of pugnō? Inflect arō, sedeō, mittō, faciō, and veniō, in the present, imperfect, and future active. What forms of -iō verbs of the third conjugation are like audiō? what like regō? Give the rule for the dative with adjectives. Name the special intransitive verbs that govern the dative. What does the imperative mood express? How is the present active imperative formed in the singular? in the plural? What three verbs have a shortened present active imperative? Give the present active imperative of portō, dēleō, agō, faciō, mūniō.

IV. REVIEW OF LESSONS XXVII-XXXVI

«513.» Give the English of the following words:

NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION «āla» «cūra» «mora» «porta» «prōvincia» «vīta»

NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION «animus» «nāvigium» aurum ōrāculum «bracchium» «perīculum» «deus» «ventus» «locus» «vīnum» mōnstrum

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «adversus» «dubius» attentus «maximus» «cārus» perfidus «commōtus» «plēnus» «dēfessus» saevus «dexter» «sinister»

ADVERBS «anteā» «ita» «celeriter» «longē» «dēnique» «semper» «diū» «subitō» «frūstrā» «tamen» «graviter» «tum»

CONJUNCTIONS «autem» «sī» «ubi»

PREPOSITIONS «dē» «per» «prō» «sine»

VERBS CONJ. I «adpropinquō» «servō» «nāvigō» «stō» «occupō» «superō» «postulō» «temptō» «recūsō» «vāstō» «reportō» «vulnerō»

CONJ. II «contineō» «egeō» «prohibeō» «respondeō» «teneō»

CONJ. III «discēdō» «gerō» «interficiō»

IRREGULAR VERB «absum»

«514.» Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs.

be away heavily wind monster through approach if nevertheless savage place wound (verb) be without, lack wine moved delay gold faithless restrain, keep from right without seize hold quickly suddenly before, in behalf of dear battle always down from or concerning god moreover hold in, keep greatest afar oracle thus, so, as follows danger arm (noun) lay waste when gate in vain doubtful stand opposite, adverse bring back, win demand before, previously finally depart, go away attentive province then, at that time care, trouble weary kill overcome, conquer reply (verb) conquer wing boat, ship mind, heart sail (verb) left (adj.) life bear, carry on save try full for a long time refuse

«515.» Give the principal parts and meaning of the following verbs:

«sum» «faveō» «dō» «noceō» «teneō» «dīcō» «iubeō» «pāreō» «agō» «dūcō» «mittō» «faciō» «mūniō» «persuādeō» «moveō» «sedeō» «crēdō» «studeō» «rapiō» «fugiō» «reperiō» «veniō» «dēleō» «iaciō» «resistō» «videō» «audiō» «absum» «moneō» «egeō» «capiō» «gerō» «doceō» «stō» «regō»

«516.» «Review Questions.» What are the personal endings in the passive voice? What is the letter -r sometimes called? What are the distinguishing vowels of the four conjugations? What forms constitute the principal parts? What are the three different conjugation stems? How may they be found? What are the tenses of the indicative? of the infinitive? What tense of the imperative have you learned? What forms are built on the present stem? on the perfect stem? on the participial stem? What are the endings of the perfect active indicative? What is the tense sign of the pluperfect active? of the future perfect active? How is the present active infinitive formed? the present passive infinitive? How is the present active imperative formed? the present passive imperative? How is the perfect active infinitive formed? the perfect passive infinitive? How is the future active infinitive formed? What is a participle? How are participles in -us declined? Give the rule for the agreement of the participle. How are the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect passive indicative formed? Conjugate the verb «sum» in all moods and tenses as far as you have learned it (§494). What is meant by the separative ablative? How is the place from which expressed in Latin? Give the rule for the ablative of separation; for the ablative of the personal agent. How can we distinguish between the ablative of means and the ablative of the personal agent? What is the perfect definite? the perfect indefinite? What is the difference in meaning between the perfect indefinite and the imperfect? What two cases in Latin may be governed by a preposition? Name the prepositions that govern the ablative. What does the preposition «in» mean when it governs the ablative? the accusative? What are the three interrogatives used to introduce yes-and-no questions? Explain the force of each. What words are sometimes used for yes and no? What are the different meanings and uses of ubi?

V. REVIEW OF LESSONS XXXVII-XLIV

«517.» Give the English of the following words:

NOUNS FIRST DECLENSION SECOND DECLENSION «rīpa» «barbarī» «captīvus» «castellum» «impedīmentum»

THIRD DECLENSION «animal» «homō» «ōrdō» «arbor» «hostīs» «pater» «avis» «ignis» «pedes» «caedēs» «imperātor» «pēs» «calamitās» «īnsigne» pōns calcar «iter» «prīnceps» «caput» iūdex «rēx» «cīvis» «labor» «salūs» «cliēns» «lapis» «sanguis» «collis» «legiō» «soror» «cōnsul» «mare» tempus «dēns» «māter» «terror» «dux» «mēnsis» «turris» «eques» «mīles» «urbs» «fīnis» «mōns» «victor» «flūmen» «nāvis» «virtūs» fōns «opus» «vīs» «frāter» «ōrātor»

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «barbarus» «dexter» «sinister» «summus»

PREPOSITIONS «in» with the abl. «in» with the acc. «trāns»

ADVERBS «cotīdiē» «numquam»

CONJUNCTIONS «nec, neque» «nec...nec», or «neque...neque»

VERBS CONJ. I CONJ. III «cessō» «accipiō» «oppugnō» «petō» «confirmō» «vincō» «vetō» «incipiō» «ponō» «vivō»

«518.» Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs:

forbid in rank, row judge brother defeat, disaster force fire across tree savages foot soldier horseman receive never general mountain highest manliness, courage fountain leader orator put, place neither...nor time and not savage, barbarous left sister tooth seek soldier captive month hindrance, baggage city captive victor hindrance, baggage daily man-of-war live (verb) conquer redoubt, fort consul sea mother tower retainer drill (verb) citizen legion head terror safety into, to assail, storm right (adj.) begin stone march blood decoration labor (noun) bridge king bird spur cease chief man slaughter river strengthen work (noun) foot and enemy ship animal bank father

«519.» «Review Questions.» Give the conjugation of «possum». What is an infinitive? What three uses has the Latin infinitive that are like the English? What is the case of the subject of the infinitive? What is meant by a complementary infinitive? In the sentence The bad boy cannot be happy, what is the case of happy? Give the rule. Decline «quī». Give the rule for the agreement of the relative. What are the two uses of the interrogative? Decline «quis». What is the base of a noun? How is the stem formed from the base? Are the stem and the base ever the same? How many declensions of nouns are there? Name them. What are the two chief divisions of the third declension? How are the consonant stems classified? Explain the formation of «lapis» from the stem «lapid-», «mīles» from «mīlit-», «rēx» from «rēg-». What nouns have «i»-stems? What peculiarities of form do «i»-stems have,--masc., fem., and neut.? Name the five nouns that have «-ī» and «-e» in the abl. Decline «turris». Give the rules for gender in the third declension. Decline «mīles», «lapis», «rēx», «virtūs», «cōnsul», «legiō», «homō», «pater», «flūmen», «opus», «tempus», «caput», «caedēs», «urbs», «hostis», «mare», «animal», «vīs», «iter».

«520.» Fill out the following scheme:

{ { Masculine { GENDER { Feminine { ENDINGS { Neuter { THE THIRD { { I. CONSONANT { a. Masc. and fem. DECLENSION { { STEMS { b. Neuters { CASE { { TERMINATIONS { { { { { II. I-STEMS { a. Masc. and fem. { { { b. Neuters { { IRREGULAR NOUNS

VI. REVIEW OF LESSONS XLV-LII

«521.» Give the English of the following words:

NOUNS FIRST DECLENSION «amīcitia» «hōra» «littera»

SECOND DECLENSION «annus» «supplicium», «modus» «supplicium dare» «nūntius» «supplicium sūmere dē» «oculus» «tergum», «rēgnum» «tergum vertere» «signum» «vestīgium»

THIRD DECLENSION «aestās» «nox» «corpus» «pars» «hiems» «pāx» «lībertās» rūs «lūx», «sōl» «prīma lūx» «vōx» «nōmen» «vulnus»

FOURTH DECLENSION «adventus» «impetus» «cornū» «lacus» «domus» «manus» «equitātus» «metus» «exercitus» «portus» «fluctus»

FIFTH DECLENSION «aciēs» «rēs», «diēs» «rēs gestae» «fidēs», «rēs adversae» «in fidem venīre» «rēs secundae» «rēs pūblica» «spēs»

INDECLINABLE NOUN «nihil»

ADJECTIVES FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «dēnsus» «prīstinus» «invīsus» «pūblicus» «mīrus» «secundus» «paucī» «tantus» «prīmus» «vērus»

THIRD DECLENSION «ācer, ācris, ācre» «gravis, grave» «brevis, breve» «incolumis, incolume» «difficilis, difficile» «omnis, omne» «facīlis, facile» «pār, pār» «fortis, forte» «vēlōx, vēlōx»

PRONOUNS PERSONAL «ego» «nōs» «suī» «tū» «vōs»

DEMONSTRATIVE «hic» «īdem» «ille» «iste»

INTENSIVE «ipse»

INDEFINITE «aliquis, aliquī» «quīdam» «quis, quī» «quisquam» «quisque»

ADVERBS «nē...quidem» «quoque» ōlim «satis» «paene» «vērō»

CONJUNCTIONS «itaque» «nisi»

PREPOSITIONS «ante» «post» «propter»

VERBS CONJ. I CONJ. II «conlocō» «dēbeō» «convocō» «exerceō» «cremō» «maneō» «dēmōnstrō» «placeō» «mandō» «sustineō»

CONJ. III CONJ. IV «committō», «dēsiliō» «committere proelium» «dēcidō» «ēripiō» «sūmō», «sūmere supplicium dē» «trādūcō» «vertō»

«522.» Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs.

if not, unless adversity on account of former, old-time public all, every commonwealth any one (at all) leap down, dismount this (of mine) unharmed heavy, serious lead across hateful, detested remain true call together burn friendship snatch from footprint, trace letter each punishment fear (noun) inflict punishment on hope behind, after therefore suffer punishment so great liberty equal sun in truth, indeed sustain that (yonder) take up, assume a certain hour fall down reign, realm owe, ought messenger measure, mode part, direction eye body name harbor wave, billow faith, protection thing, matter of himself exploits also, too republic sufficiently prosperity you (plur.) burn peace that (of yours) back before turn the back, retreat light night daybreak hand, force winter lake attack day line of battle commit, intrust army a few only drill, train sharp, eager join battle we house, home turn midday you (sing.) wonderful I brave signal almost summer the same cavalry some, any wound if any one horn, wing self, very country not even second, favorable easy formerly, once dense short point out, explain voice difficult arrival first come under the protection of arrange, station nothing please swift year

«523.» «Review Questions.» By what declensions are Latin adjectives declined? What can you say about the stem of adjectives of the third declension? Into what classes are these adjectives divided? How can you tell to which of the classes an adjective belongs? Decline «ācer, omnis, pār». What are the nominative endings and genders of nouns of the fourth or «u»-declension? What nouns are feminine by exception? Decline «adventus, lacus, cornū, domus». Give the rules for the ordinary expression of the place to which, the place from which, the place in which. What special rules apply to names of towns, small islands, and «rūs»? What is the locative case? What words have a locative case? What is the form of the locative case? Translate Galba lives at home, Galba lives at Rome, Galba lives at Pompeii. What is the rule for gender in the fifth or «ē»-declension? Decline «diēs», «rēs». When is the long «ē» shortened? What can you say about the plural of the fifth declension? Decline «tuba», «servus», «pīlum», «ager», «puer», «mīles», «cōnsul», «flūmen», «caedēs», «animal». How is the time when expressed? Name the classes of pronouns and define each class. Decline «ego, tū, is». What are the reflexives of the first and second persons? What is the reflexive of the third person? Decline it. Translate I see myself, he sees himself, he sees him. Decline «ipse». How is «ipse» used? Decline «īdem». Decline «hic», «iste», «ille». Explain the use of these words. Name and translate the commoner indefinite pronouns. Decline «aliquis», «quisquam», «quīdam», «quisque».

VII. REVIEW OF LESSONS LIII-LX

«524.» Give the English of the following words:

NOUNS FIRST DECLENSION «aquila» «fossa»

SECOND DECLENSION «aedificium» «negōtium» «captīvus» «spatium» «concilium» «vāllum» «imperium»

THIRD DECLENSION «agmen» «mors» «celeritās» «mulier» «cīvitās» «multitūdō» «clāmor» «mūnītiō» «cohors» «nēmō» «difficultās» «obses» «explōrātor» «opīniō» «gēns» «regiō» «lātitūdō» «rūmor» «longitūdō» «scelus» «magnitūdō» «servitūs» «mēns» «timor» «mercātor» «vallēs» «mīlle»

FOURTH DECLENSIONS «aditus» «passus» «commeātus»

FIFTH DECLENSION «rēs frūmentāria»

ADJECTIVES FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «aequus» «pessimus» «bīnī» «plūrimus» «ducentī» «posterus» «duo» «prīmus» «exterus» reliquus «īnferus» «secundus» «maximus» «singulī» «medius» «superus» «minimus» «tardus» «opportūnus» «ternī» «optimus» «ūnus»

THIRD DECLENSION «alacer, alacris, alacre» «audāx, audāx» «celer, celeris, celere» «citerior, citerius» «difficilis, difficile» «dissimilis, dissimile» «facilis, facile» gracilis, gracile «humilis, humile» «ingēns, ingēns» «interior, interius» «lēnis, lēne» «maior, maius» «melior, melius» «minor, minus» «nōbilis, nōbile» «peior, peius» ----, «plūs» «prior, prius» «recēns, recēns» «similis, simile» «trēs, tria» «ulterior, ulterius»

ADVERBS «ācriter» «optimē» «audācter» «parum» «bene» «paulō» «facile» «plūrimum» «ferē» «prope» «fortiter» «propius» «magis» «proximē» «magnopere» «quam» «maximē» «statim» «melius» «tam» «minimē» «undique» «multum»

CONJUNCTIONS «atque, ac» «quā dē causā» «aut» «quam ob rem» «aut ... aut» «simul atque or» «et ... et» «simul ac «nam»»

PREPOSITIONS «circum» «contrā» «inter» «ob» «trāns»

VERBS CONJ. I CONJ. II «cōnor» «obtineō» «hortor» «perterreō» «moror» «valeō» «vexō» «vereor»

CONJ. III «abdō» «patior» «cadō» premō «cognōscō» «proficīscor» «cōnsequor» «prōgredior» «contendō» «quaerō» «cupiō» «recipiō» «currō» «relinquō» «dēdō» «revertor» «dēfendō» «sequor» ēgredior statuō «incendō» subsequor «incolō» «suscipiō» «īnsequor» «trādō» «occīdō» «trahō»

CONJ. IV «orior» perveniō»

«525.» Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs:

on account of width nearly scout keenly, sharply cohort thousand tribe, nation two business opportune by a little remaining somewhat above (adj.) crime next difficult grain supply equal pace move forward, advance shout (noun) further from all sides multitude against woman around desire (verb) three give over, surrender line of march kill manor overtake region hasten, strive fortification hide eagle one almost first boldly second, favorable bravely two hundred across former between, among inner hither (adj.) middle so low less outward more three by three most provisions worst speed difficulty ditch hostage wherefore or therefore death length command, power for this reason captive fear (noun) or return and inquire arrive set out attempt, try move out, disembark fear (verb) leave worse abandon greater, larger be strong two by two receive, recover least (adv.) terrify, frighten opinion, expectation dwell defend state, citizenship approach, entrance valley trader slavery magnitude, size greatly council, assembly best of all (adv.) space, room better (adv.) either ... or well (adv.) rise, arise very much suffer, allow much press hard unlike fall like (adj.) surrender slow set fire to very greatly, exceedingly possess, hold building delay (verb) mind (noun) nearest (adv.) easily nearer (adv.) easy better (adj.) recent well known, noble huge, great rampart bold mild, gentle immediately swift as soon as eager for low (adj.) than slender best (adj.) one by one greatest no one follow close least (adv.) encourage little (adv.) annoy, ravage learn, know hide drag follow undertake pursue run both ... and fix, decide

«526.» «Review Questions.» What is meant by comparison? In what two ways may adjectives be compared? Compare «clārus, brevis, vēlōx», and explain the formation of the comparative and the superlative. What are the adverbs used in comparison? Compare «brevis» by adverbs. Decline the comparative of «vēlōx». How are adjectives in «-er» compared? Compare «ācer», «pulcher», «liber». What are possible translations for the comparative and superlative? Name the six adjectives that form the superlative in «-limus». Translate in two ways Nothing is brighter than the sun. Give the rule for the ablative with comparatives. Compare «bonus, magnus, malus, multus, parvus, exterus, īnferus, posterus, superus». Decline «plūs». Compare «citerior, interior, propior, ulterior». Translate That route to Italy is much shorter. Give the rule for the expression of measure of difference. Name five words that are especially common in this construction. How are adverbs usually formed from adjectives of the first and second declensions? from adjectives of the third declension? Compare the adverbs «cārē», «līberē», «fortiter», «audācter». What cases of adjectives are sometimes used as adverbs? What are the adverbs from «facilis»? «multus? prīmus? plūrimus»? «bonus»? «magnus»? «parvus»? Compare «prope», «saepe», «magnopere». How are numerals classified? Give the first twenty cardinals. Decline «ūnus, duo, trēs, mīlle». How are the hundreds declined? What is meant by the partitive genitive? Give the rule for the partitive genitive. What sort of words are commonly used with this construction? What construction is used with «quīdam» and cardinal numbers excepting «mīlle»? Give the first twenty ordinals. How are they declined? How are the distributives declined? Give the rule for the expression of duration of time and extent of space. What is the difference between the ablative of time and the accusative of time? What is a deponent verb? Give the synopsis of one. What form always has a passive meaning? Conjugate «amō», «moneō», «regō», «capiō», «audiō», in the active and passive.

VIII. REVIEW OF LESSONS LXI-LXIX

«527.» Review the vocabularies of the first seventeen lessons. See §§502, 503, 506, 507.

«528.» «Review Questions.» Name the tenses of the subjunctive. What time is denoted by these tenses? What are the mood signs of the present subjunctive? How may the imperfect subjunctive be formed? How do the perfect subjunctive and the future perfect indicative active differ in form? How is the pluperfect subjunctive active formed? Inflect the subjunctive active and passive of «cūrō», «dēleō», «vincō», «rapiō», «mūniō». Inflect the subjunctive tenses of «sum»; of «possum». What are the tenses of the participles in the active? What in the passive? Give the active and passive participles of «amō», «moneō», «regō», «capiō», «audiō». Decline «regēns». What participles do deponent verbs have? What is the difference in meaning between the perfect participle of a deponent verb and of one not deponent? Give the participles of «vereor». How should participles usually be translated? Conjugate «volō», «nolō», «mālō», «fīō».

What is the difference between the indicative and subjunctive in their fundamental ideas? How is purpose usually expressed in English? How is it expressed in Latin? By what words is a Latin purpose clause introduced? When should «quō» be used? What is meant by sequence of tenses? Name the primary tenses of the indicative and of the subjunctive; the secondary tenses. What Latin verbs are regularly followed by substantive clauses of purpose? What construction follows «iubeō»? What construction follows verbs of fearing? How is consequence or result expressed in Latin? How is a result clause introduced? What words are often found in the principal clause foreshadowing the coming of a result clause? How may negative purpose be distinguished from negative result? What is meant by the subjunctive of characteristic or description? How are such clauses introduced? Explain the ablative absolute. Why is the ablative absolute of such frequent occurrence in Latin? Explain the predicate accusative. After what verbs are two accusatives commonly found? What do these accusatives become when the verb is passive?

[Illustration: IMPERATOR MILITES HORTATUR]

SPECIAL VOCABULARIES

The words in heavy type are used in Cæsar’s “Gallic War.”

[Transcriber’s Note:

Each chapter’s Special Vocabulary was included with its chapter text in addition to its original location here. Details are given in the Transcriber’s Note at the beginning of the text. In the printed book, the vocabularies for Lesson IV and Lesson V appeared on the same page; the Footnote about conjunctions was shared by the two lists.]

LESSON IV, §39

PRONOUNS «quis», interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., who? «cuius» (pronounced co͝oi´yo͝os, two syllables), interrog. pronoun, gen. sing., whose?

LESSON V, §47

«cui» (pronounced co͝oi, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat. sing., to whom? for whom?

LESSON VI, §56

«-ne», the question sign, an enclitic (§16) added to the first word, which, in a question, is usually the verb, as «amat», he loves, but «amat´ne?» does he love? «est», he is; «estne?» is he? Of course «-ne» is not used when the sentence contains «quis», «cūr», or some other interrogative word.

LESSON VII, §62

NOUNS «casa, -ae», f., cottage cēna, -ae, f., dinner «gallī´na, -ae», f., hen, chicken «īn´sula, ae», f., island (pen-insula)

LESSON VIII, §69

LESSON IX, §77

LESSON X, §82

LESSON XI, §86

ADJECTIVES «dūrus, -a, -um», hard, rough; unfeeling, cruel; severe, toilsome (durable) «Rōmānus, -a, -um», Roman. As a noun, «Rōmānus, -ī», m., a Roman

LESSON XII, §90

LESSON XIII, §95

ADJECTIVES «legiōnārius, -a, -um»,[A] legionary, belonging to the legion. As a noun, «legiōnāriī, -ōrum», m., plur., legionary soldiers «līber, lībera, līberum», free (liberty) As a noun. «līberī, -ōrum,» m., plur., children (lit. the freeborn) «pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum», pretty, beautiful

LESSON XIV, §99

NOUNS «auxilium, auxi´lī», n., help, aid (auxiliary) «castrum, -ī», n., fort (castle); plur., camp (lit. forts) «cibus, -ī», m., food «cōnsilium, cōnsi´lī», n., plan (counsel) «dīligentia, -ae», f., diligence, industry magister, magistrī, m., master, teacher[A]

LESSON XV, §107

LESSON XVII, §117

CONJUNCTION «an», or, introducing the second half of a double question, as Is he a Roman or a Gaul, «Estne Romanus an Gallus?»

LESSON XVIII, §124

NOUNS lūdus, -ī, m., school «socius, socī», m., companion, ally (social)

LESSON XX, §136

ADJECTIVES «septem,» indeclinable, seven «superbus, -a, -um», proud, haughty (superb)

LESSON XXI, §140

«ego», personal pronoun, I (egotism). Always emphatic in the nominative.

LESSON XXII, §146

LESSON XXVII, §168

LESSON XXVIII, §171

LESSON XXIX, §176

NOUNS «cūra, -ae», f., care, trouble «locus, -ī», m., place, spot (location). «Locus» is neuter in the plural and is declined «loca, -ōrum», etc. «perīculum, -ī», n., danger, peril

PREPOSITIONS «dē», with abl., down from.; concerning «per», with acc., through

LESSON XXX, §182

VERBS «absum», abesse, irreg., be away, be absent, be distant, with separative abl. «adpropinquō, -āre», draw near, approach (propinquity), with dative[A] «contineō, -ēre», hold together, hem in, keep (contain) «discēdō, -ere», depart, go away, leave, with separative abl. «egeō, -ēre», lack, need, be without, with separative abl. «interficiō, -ere», kill «prohibeō, -ēre», restrain, keep from (prohibit) «vulnerō, -āre», wound (vulnerable)

LESSON XXXI, §188

LESSON XXXII, §193

LESSON XXXIV, §200

LESSON XXXVI, §211

LESSON XXXVII, §217

«neque» or «nec», conj., neither, nor, and ... not; «neque ... neque», neither ... nor «castellum, -ī», n., redoubt, fort (castle) «cotīdiē», adv., daily

cessō, cessāre, cessāvī, cessātus, cease, with the infin. «incipiō, incipere, incēpī, inceptus», begin (incipient), with the infin. «oppugnō, oppugnāre, oppugnāvī, oppugnātus», storm, assail «petō, petere, petivi» or «petiī, petītus», aim at, assail, storm, attack; seek, ask (petition) «pōnō, pōnere, posuī, positus», place, put (position); «castra pōnere», to pitch camp «possum, posse, potuī, ----», be able, can (potent), with the infin. «vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitus», forbid (veto), vith the infin.; opposite of «iubeō», command «vincō, vincere, vīcī, victus», conquer (in-vincible) «vīvō, vīvere, vīxī, ----», live, be alive (re-vive)

LESSON XXXIX, §234

LESSON XL, §237

LESSON XLI, §239

«accipiō, accipere, accēpī, acceptus», receive, accept «cōnfirmō, cōnfīrmāre, cōnfīrmāvī, cōnfīrmātus», strengthen, establish, encourage (confirm)

LESSON XLIII, §245

[Footnote A: The genitive plural ending -ium is written to mark the i-stems.]

[Footnote B: The genitive plural of mare is not in use.]

LESSON XLIV, §249

LESSON XLV, §258

LESSON XLVI, §261

LESSON XLVII, §270

Athēnae, -ārum, f., plur., Athens Corinthus, -ī, f., Corinth «domus, -ūs, locative «domī»», f., house, home (dome). Cf. «domicilium» «Genāva, -ae», f., Geneva Pompēii, -ōrum, m., plur., Pompeii, a city in Campania. See map «propter», prep. with acc., on account of, because of rūs, rūris, in the plur. only nom. and acc. «rūra», n., country (rustic) «tergum, tergī», n., back; «ā tergō», behind, in the rear «vulnus, vulneris», n., wound (vulnerable)

LESSON XLVIII, §276

«aciēs, -ēī», f., line of battle «aestās, aestātis», f., summer «annus, -ī», m., year (annual) «diēs, diēī», m., day (diary) «fidēs, fideī, no plur.», f., faith, trust; promise, word; protection; «in fidem venīre», to come under the protection «fluctus, -ūs», m. wave, billow (fluctuate) «hiems, hiemis», f., winter «hōra, -ae», f., hour «lūx, lūcis», f., light (lucid); «prīma lux», daybreak «merīdiēs», acc. «-em», abl. «-ē», no plur., m., midday (meridian) «nox, noctis (-ium)», f., night (nocturnal) «prīmus, -a, -um», first (prime) «rēs, reī», f., thing, matter (real); «rēs gestae», deeds, exploits (lit. things performed); «rēs adversae», adversity; «rēs secundae», prosperity «spēs, speī», f., hope

LESSON XLIX, §283

LESSON L, §288

LESSON LI, §294

LESSON LII, §298

LESSON LIII, §306

LESSON LIV, §310

«alacer, alacris, alacre», eager, spirited, excited (alacrity) «celeritās, -ātis», f., speed (celerity) «clāmor, clāmōris», m., shout, clamor «lēnis, lēne», mild, gentle (lenient) «mulier, muli´eris», f., woman «multitūdō, multitūdinis», f., multitude «nēmō», dat. «nēminī», acc. «nēminem» (gen. «nūllīus», abl. «nūllō», from «nūllus»), no plur., m. and f., no one «nōbilis, nōbile», well known, noble «noctū», adv. (an old abl.), by night (nocturnal) «statim», adv., immediately, at once «subitō», adv., suddenly «tardus, -a, -um», slow (tardy) «cupiō, cupere, cupīvī, cupītus», desire, wish (cupidity)

LESSON LV, §314

LESSON LVI, §318

LESSON LVII, §326

LESSON LVIII, §332

LESSON LIX, §337

LESSON LX, §341

LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY

Translations inclosed within parentheses are not to be used as such; they are inserted to show etymological meanings.

[Transcriber’s Note: The “parentheses” were originally printed as [square brackets]. They are rendered here as [[double brackets]].]

«ā» or «ab», prep. with abl. from, by, off. Translated on in «ā dextrō cornū», on the right wing; «ā fronte», on the front or in front; «ā dextrā», on the right; «ā latere», on the side; etc. «ab-dō, -ere, -didī, -ditus», hide, conceal «ab-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus», lead off, lead away «abs-cīdō, -ere, -cīdī,-cīsus» [[«ab(s)», off, + «caedō», cut]], cut off «ab-sum, -esse, āfuī, āfutūrus», be away, be absent, be distant, be off; with «ā» or «ab» and abl., §501.32 «ac», conj., see «atque» «ac-cipiō, -ere, -cēpī, -ceptus» [[«ad», to, + «capiō», take]], receive, accept «ācer, ācris, ācre», adj. sharp; figuratively, keen, active, eager (§471) «acerbus, -a, -um», adj. bitter, sour «aciēs, -ēī», f. [[«ācer», sharp]], edge; line of battle «ācriter», adv. [[«ācer», sharp]], compared «ācrius, ācerrimē», sharply, fiercely «ad», prep. with acc. to, towards, near. With the gerund or gerundive, to, for «ad-aequō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», make equal, make level with «ad-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus», lead to; move, induce «ad-eō, -īre, -iī, -itus», go to, approach, draw near, visit, with acc. (§413) «ad-ferō, ad-ferre, at-tulī, ad-lātus», bring, convey; report, announce; render, give (§426) «ad-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus» [[«ad», to, + «faciō», do]], affect, visit «adflīctātus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «adflīctō», shatter]], shattered «ad-flīgō, -ere, -flīxī, -flīctus», dash upon, strike upon; harass, distress «ad-hibeō, -ēre, -uī, -itus» [[«ad», to, + «habeō», hold]], apply, employ, use «ad-hūc», adv. hitherto, as yet, thus far «aditus, -ūs», m. [[«adeō», approach]], approach, access; entrance. Cf. «adventus» «ad-ligō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», bind to, fasten «ad-loquor, -loquī, -locūtus sum», dep. verb [[«ad», to, + «loquor», speak]], speak to, address, with acc. «ad-ministrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», manage, direct «admīrātiō, -ōnis», f. [[«admīror», wonder at]], admiration, astonishment «ad-moveō, -ēre, -mōvī, -mōtus», move to; apply, employ «ad-propinquō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», come near, approach, with dat. «ad-sum, -esse, -fuī, -futūres», be present; assist; with dat., §426 «adulēscēns, -entis», m. and f. [[part. of «adolēscō», grow]], a youth, young man, young person «adventus, -ūs», m. [[«ad», to, + «veniō», come]], approach, arrival (§466) «adversus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «advertō», turn to]], turned towards, facing; contrary, adverse. «rēs adversae», adversity «aedificium, aedifi´cī», n. [[«aedificō», build]], building, edifice «aedificō, -āre, -āvi, -ātus» [[«aedēs», house, + «faciō», make]], build «aeger, aegra, aegrum», adj. sick, feeble «aequālis, -e», adj. equal, like. As a noun, «aequālis, -is», m. or f. one of the same age «aequus, -a, -um», adj. even, level; equal «Aesōpus, -ī», m. Æsop, a writer of fables «aestās, -ātis», f. summer, «initā aestāte», at the beginning of summer «aetās, -ātis», f. age «Aethiopia, -ae», f. Ethiopia, a country in Africa «Āfrica, -ae», f. Africa «Āfricānus, -a, -um», adj. of Africa. A name given to Scipio for his victories in Africa «ager, agrī», m. field, farm, land (§462.c) «agger, -eris», m. mound «agmen, -inis», n. [[«agō», drive]], an army on the march, column. «prīmum agmen», the van «agō, -ere, ēgī, āctus», drive, lead; do, perform. «vītam agere», pass life «agricola, -ae», m. [[«ager», field, + «colō», cultivate]], farmer «agrī cultūra, -ae», f. agriculture «āla, -ae», f. wing «alacer, -cris, -cre», adj. active, eager. Cf. «ācer» «alacritās, -ātis», f. [[«alacer», active]], eagerness, alacrity «alacriter», adv. [[«alacer», active]], comp «alacrius, alacerrimē», actively, eagerly «albus, -a, -um», adj., white «alcēs, -is», f. elk «Alcmēna, -ae», f. Alcme´na, the mother of Hercules «aliquis (-quī), -qua, -quid (-quod)», indef. pron. some one, some (§487) «alius, -a, -ud» (gen. «-īus», dat. «-ī»), adj. another, other. «alius ... alius», one ... another. «aliī ... aliī», some ... others (§110) «Alpēs, -ium», f. plur. the Alps «alter, -era, -erum» (gen. «-īus», dat. «-ī»), adj. the one, the other (of two). «alter ... alter», the one ... the other (§110) «altitūdō, -inis», f. [[«altus», high]], height «altus, -a, -um», adj. high, tall, deep «Amāzonēs, -um», f. plur. Amazons, a fabled tribe of warlike women «ambō, -ae, -ō», adj. (decl. like «duo»), both «amīcē», adv. [[«amīcus», friendly]], superl. «amīcissimē», in a friendly manner «amiciō, -īre, ----, -ictus» [[«am-», about, + «iaciō», throw]], throw around, wrap about, clothe «amīcitia, -ae», f. [[«amīcus», friend]], friendship «amīcus, -a, -um», adj. [[«amō», love]], friendly. As a noun, «amīcus, -ī», m. friend «ā-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus», send away; lose «amō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», love, like, be fond of (§488) «amphitheātrum, -ī», n. amphitheater «amplus, -a, -um», adj. large, ample; honorable, noble «an», conj. or, introducing the second part of a double question «ancilla, -ae», f. maidservant «ancora, -ae», f. anchor «Andromeda, -ae», f. Androm´eda, daughter of Cepheus and wife of Perseus «angulus, -ī», m. angle, corner «anim-advertō, -ere, -tī, -sus [[animus», mind, + «advertō», turn to]], turn the mind to, notice «animal, -ālis», n. [[«anima», breath]], animal (§465.b) «animōsus, -a, -um», adj. spirited «animus, -ī», m. [[«anima», breath]], mind, heart; spirit, courage, feeling; in this sense often plural «annus, -i», m. year «ante», prep, with acc. before «anteā», adv. [[«ante»]], before, formerly «antīquus, -a, -um», adj. [[«ante», before]], former, ancient, old «aper, aprī», m. wild boar «Apollō, -inis», m. Apollo, son of Jupiter and Latona, brother of Diana «ap-pāreō, -ēre, -uī», ---- [[«ad + pāreō», appear]], appear «ap-pellō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», call by name, name. Cf. «nōminō, vocō» «Appius, -a, -um», adj. Appian «ap-plicō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», apply, direct, turn «apud», prep, with acc. among; at, at the house of «aqua, -ae», f. water «aquila, -ae», f. eagle «āra, -ae», f. altar «arbitror, -ārī, -ātus sum», think, suppose (§420.c). Cf. «exīstimō, putō» «arbor, -oris», f. tree (§247.1.a) «Arcadia, -ae», f. Arcadia, a district in southern Greece «ārdeō, -ēre, ārsī, ārsūrus», be on fire, blaze, burn «arduus, -a, -um», adj. steep «Arīcia, -ae», f. Aricia, a town on the Appian Way, near Rome «ariēs, -etis», m. battering-ram (p. 221) «arma, -ōrum», n. plur. arms, weapons. Cf. «tēlum» «armātus, -a, -um», adj. [[«armō», arm]], armed, equipped «arō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», plow, till «ars, artis», f. art, skill «articulus, -ī», m. joint «ascrībō, -ere, -scrīpsī, -scrīptus» [[«ad», in addition, + «scrībō», write]], enroll, enlist «Āsia, -ae», f. Asia, i.e. Asia Minor «at», conj. but. Cf. «autem, sed» «Athēnae, -ārum», f. plur. Athens «Atlās, -antis», m. Atlas, a Titan who was said to hold up the sky «at-que, ac», conj. and, and also, and what is more. «atque» may be used before either vowels or consonants, «ac» before consonants only «attentus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «attendō», direct (the mind) toward]], attentive, intent on, careful «at-tonitus, -a, -um», adj. thunderstruck, astounded «audācia, -ae», f. [[«audāx», bold]], boldness, audacity «audācter», adv. [[«audāx», bold]], compared «audācius, audācissimē», boldly «audāx, -ācis», adj. bold, daring «audeō, -ēre, ausus sum», dare «audiō, -īre, -īvī or -īī, -ītus», hear, listen to (§§420.d, 491) «Augēās, -ae», m. Auge´as, a king whose stables Hercules cleaned «aura, -ae», f. air, breeze «aurātus, -a, -um», adj. [[«aurum», gold]], adorned with gold «aureus, -a, -um», adj.[[«aurum», gold]], golden «aurum, -ī», n. gold «aut», conj. or. «aut...aut», either...or «autem», conj., usually second, never first, in the clause, but, moreover, however, now. Cf. «at, sed» «auxilium, auxi´lī», n. help, aid, assistance; plur. auxiliaries «ā-vertō, -ere, -tī, -sus», turn away, turn aside «avis, -is», f. bird (§243.1)

«ballista, -ae», f. ballista, an engine for hurling missiles (p. 220) «balteus, -ī», m. belt, sword belt «barbarus, -ī», m. barbarian, savage «bellum, -ī», n. war. «bellum īnferre», with dat. make war upon «bene», adv. [[for «bonē», from «bonus»]], compared «melius, optimē», well «benignē», adv. [[«benignus», kind]], compared «benignius, benignissimē», kindly «benignus, -a, -um», adj. good-natured, kind, often used with dat. «bīnī, -ae, -a», distributive numeral adj. two each, two at a time (§334) «bis», adv. twice «bonus, -a, -um», adj. compared «melior, optimus», good, kind (§469.a) «bōs, bovis» (gen. plur. «boum» or «bovum», dat. and abl. plur. «bōbus» or «būbus»), m. and f. ox, cow «bracchium, bracchī», n. arm «brevis, -e», adj. short «Brundisium, -ī», n. Brundisium, a seaport in southern Italy. See map «bulla, -ae», f. bulla, a locket made of small concave plates of gold fastened by a spring (p. 212)

«C.» abbreviation for «Gāius», Eng. Caius «cadō, -ere, ce´cidī, cāsūrus», fall «caedēs, -is», f. [[«caedō», cut]], (a cutting down), slaughter, carnage (§465.a) «caelum, -ī», n. sky, heavens «Caesar, -aris», m. Cæsar, the famous general, statesman, and writer «calamitās, -ātis», f. loss, calamity, defeat, disaster «calcar, -āris», n. spur (§465.b) «Campānia, -ae», f. Campania., a district of central Italy. See map «Campānus, -a, -um», adj. of Campania «campus, -ī», m. plain, field, esp. the Campus Martius, along the Tiber just outside the walls of Rome «canis, -is», m. and f. dog «canō, -ere, ce´cinī», ----, sing «cantō, -āre, -āvi, -ātus» [[«canō», sing]], sing «Capēnus, -a, -um», adj. of Capena, esp. the Porta Cape´na, the gate at Rome leading to the Appian Way «capiō, -ere, cēpī, captus», take, seize, capture (§492) «Capitōlīnus, -a, -um», adj. belonging to the Capitol, Capitoline «Capitōlium, Capitō´lī», n. [[«caput», head]], the Capitol, the hill at Rome on which stood the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus and the citadel «capsa, -ae», f. box for books «captīvus, -ī», m. [[«capiō», take]], captive «Capua, -ae», f. Capua, a large city of Campania. See map «caput, -itis», n. head (§464.2.b) «carcer, -eris», m. prison, jail «carrus, -ī», m. cart, wagon «cārus, -a, -um», adj. dear; precious «casa, -ae», f. hut, cottage «castellum, -ī», n. [[dim. of «castrum», fort]], redoubt, fort «castrum, -ī», n. fort. Usually in the plural, «castra, -ōrum», a military camp. «castra pōnere», to pitch camp «cāsus, -us», m. [[«cadō», fall]], chance; misfortune, loss «catapulta, -ae», f. catapult, an engine for hurling stones «catēna, -ae», f. chain «caupōna, -ae», f. inn «causa, -ae», f. cause, reason, «quā dē causā», for this reason «cēdō, -ere, cessī, cessūrus», give way, retire «celer, -eris, -ere», adj. swift, fleet «celeritās, -ātis», f. [[«celer», swift]], swiftness, speed «celeriter», adv. [[«celer», swift]], compared «celerius, celerrimē», swiftly «cēna, -ae», f. dinner «centum», indecl. numeral adj. hundred «centuriō, -ōnis», m. centurion, captain «Cēpheus» (dissyl.), «-eī» (acc. «Cēphea»), m. Cepheus, a king of Ethiopia and father of Andromeda «Cerberus, -ī», m. Cerberus, the fabled three-headed dog that guarded the entrance to Hades «certāmen, -inis», n. [[«certō», struggle]], struggle, contest, rivalry «certē», adv. [[«certus», sure]], compared «certius, certissimē», surely, certainly «certus, -a, -um», adj. fixed, certain, sure. «aliquem certiōrem facere» (to make some one more certain), to inform some one «cervus, -ī», m. stag, deer «cessō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», delay, cease «cibāria, -ōrum», n. plur. food, provisions «cibus, -ī», m.food, victuals «Cimbrī, -ōrum», m. plur. the Cimbri «Cimbricus, -a, -um», adj. Cimbrian «cīnctus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «cingō», surround]], girt, surrounded «cingō, -ere, cīnxī, cīnctus», gird, surround «circiter», adv. about «circum», prep, with acc. around «circum´-dō, -dare, -dedī, -datus», place around, surround, inclose «circum´-eō, -īre, -iī, -itus», go around «circum-sistō, -ere, circum´stetī», ----, stand around, surround «circum-veniō, -īre, -vēnī, -ventus» (come around), surround «citerior, -ius», adj. in comp., superl. «citimus», hither, nearer (§475) «cīvīlis, -e», adj. [[«cīvis»]], civil «cīvis, -is», m. and f. citizen (§243.1) «cīvitās, -ātis», f. [[«cīvis», citizen]], (body of citizens), state; citizenship «clāmor, -ōris», m. shout, cry «clārus, -a, -um», adj. clear; famous, renowned; bright, shining «classis, -is», f. fleet «claudō, -ere, -sī, -sus», shut, close «clavus, -ī», m. stripe «cliēns, -entis», m. dependent, retainer, client (§465.a) «Cocles, -itis», m. (blind in one eye), Cocles, the surname of Horatius «co-gnōscō, -ere, -gnōvī, -gnītus», learn, know, understand. Cf. «sciō» (§420.b) «cōgō, -ere, coēgī, coāctus» [[«co(m)-», together, + «agō», drive]], (drive together), collect; compel, drive «cohors, cohortis», f. cohort, the tenth part of a legion, about 360 men «collis, -is», m. hill, «in summō colle», on top of the hill (§247.2.a) «collum, -ī», n. neck «colō, -ere, coluī, cultus», cultivate, till; honor, worship; devote one’s self to «columna, -ae», f. column, pillar «com- (col-, con-, cor-, co-)», a prefix, together, with, or intensifying the meaning of the root word «coma, -ae», f. hair «comes, -itis», m. and f. [[«com-», together, + «eō», go]], companion, comrade «comitātus, -ūs», m. [[«comitor», accompany]], escort, company «comitor, -ārī, -ātus sum», dep. verb [[«comes», companion]], accompany «com-meātus, -ūs», m. supplies «com-minus», adv. [[«com-», together, + «manus», hand]], hand to hand «com-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus», join together; commit, intrust. «proelium committere», join battle. «sē committere» with dat, trust one’s self to «commodē», adv. [[«commodus», fit]], compared «commodius, commodissimē», conveniently, fitly «commodus, -a, -um», adj. suitable, fit «com-mōtus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «commoveō», move]], aroused, moved «com-parō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«com-», intensive, + «parō», prepare]], prepare; provide, get «com-pleō, -ēre, -plēvī, -plētus» [[«com-», intensive, + «pleō», fill]], fill up «complexus, -ūs», m. embrace «com-primō, -ere, -pressī, -pressus» [[«com-», together, + «premō», press]], press together, grasp, seize «con-cidō, -ere, -cidī», ---- [[«com-», intensive, + «cadō», fall]], fall down «concilium, conci´lī», n. meeting, council «con-clūdō, -ere, -clūsī, -clūsus» [[«com-», intensive, + «claudō», close]], shut up, close; end, finish «con-currō, -ere, -currī, -cursus» [[«com-», together, + «currō», run]], run together; rally, gather «condiciō, -ōnis», f. [[«com-», together, + «dicō», talk]], agreement, condition, terms «con-dōnō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», pardon «con-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus», hire «cōn-ferō, -ferre, -tulī, -lātus», bring together. «sē cōnferre», betake one’s self «cōn-fertus, -a, -um», adj. crowded, thick «cōnfestim», adv. immediately «cōn-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus» [[«com-», completely, + «faciō», do]], make, complete, accomplish, finish «cōn-fīrmō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», make firm, establish, strengthen, affirm, assert «cōn-fluō, -ere, -flūxī», ----, flow together «cōn-fugiō, -ere, -fūgī, -fugitūrus», flee for refuge, flee «con-iciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectus» [[«com-», intensive, + «iaciō», throw]], hurl «con-iungō, -ere, -iūnxī, -iūnctus» [[«com-», together, + «iungō», join]], join together, unite «con-iūrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«com-», together, + «iūrō», swear]], unite by oath, conspire «con-locō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«com-», together, + «locō», place]], arrange, place, station «conloquium, conlo´quī», n. [[«com-», together, + «loquor», speak]], conversation, conference «cōnor, -ārī, -ātus sum», dep. verb, endeavor, attempt, try «cōn-scendō, -ere, -scendī, -scēnsus» [[«com-», intensive, + «scandō», climb]], climb up, ascend. «nāvem cōnscendere», embark, go on board «cōn-scrībō, -ere, -scrīpsī, -scrīptus» [[«com-», together, + «scrībō», write]], (write together), enroll, enlist «cōn-secrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«com-», intensive, + «sacrō», consecrate]], consecrate, devote «cōn-sequor, -sequī, -secūtus sum», dep. verb [[«com-», intensive, + «sequor», follow]], pursue; overtake; win «cōn-servō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«com-», intensive, + «servō», save]], preserve, save «cōnsilium, cōnsi´lī», n. plan, purpose, design; wisdom «cōn-sistō, -ere, -stitī, -stitus» [[«com-», intensive, + «sistō», cause to stand]], stand firmly, halt, take one’s stand «cōn-spiciō, -ere, -spēxī, -spectus» [[«com-», intensive, + «spiciō», spy]], look at attentively, perceive, see «cōnstantia, -ae», f. firmness, steadiness, perseverance «cōn-stituō, -ere, -uī, -ūtus» [[«com-», intensive, + «statuō», set]], establish, determine, resolve «cōn-stō, -āre, -stitī, -stātūrus» [[«com-», together, + «stō», stand]], agree; be certain ; consist of «cōnsul, -ulis», m. consul (§464.2.a) «cōn-sūmō, -ere, -sūmpsī, -sūmptus» [[«com-», intensive, + «sumō», take]], consume, use up «con-tendō, -ere, -dī, -tus», strain; hasten; fight, contend, struggle «con-tineō, -ēre, -uī, -tentus» [[«com-», together, + «teneō», hold]], hold together, hem in, contain; restrain «contrā», prep, with acc. against, contrary to «con-trahō, -ere, -trāxī, -trāctus» [[«com-», together, + «trahō», draw]], draw together; of sails, shorten, furl «contrōversia, -ae», f. dispute, quarrel «con-veniō, -īre, -vēnī, -ventus» [[«com-», together, + «veniō», come]], come together, meet, assemble «con-vertō, -ere, -vertī, -versus» [[«com-», intensive, + «vertō», turn]], turn «con-vocō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«com-», together, + «vocō», call]], call together «co-orior, -īrī, -ortus sum», dep. verb [[«com-», intensive, + «orior», rise]], rise, break forth «cōpia, -ae», f. [[«com-», intensive, + «ops», wealth]], abundance, wealth, plenty. Plur. «cōpiae, -ārum», troops «coquō, -ere, coxī, coctus», cook «Corinthus, -ī», f. Corinth, the famous city on the Isthmus of Corinth «Cornēlia, -ae», f. Cornelia, daughter of Scipio and mother of the Gracchi «Cornēlius, Cornē´lī», m. Cornelius, a Roman name «cornū, -ūs», n. horn; wing of an army, «ā dextrō cornū», on the right wing (§466) «corōna, -ae», f. garland, wreath; crown «corōnātus, -a, -um», adj. crowned «corpus, -oris», n. body «cor-ripiō, -ere, -uī, -reptus» [[«com-», intensive, + «rapiō», seize]], seize, grasp «cotīdiānus, -a, -um», adj. daily «cotīdiē», adv. daily «crēber, -bra, -brum», adj. thick, crowded, numerous, frequent «crēdō, -ere, -dīdī, -ditus», trust, believe, with dat. (§501.14) «cremō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», burn «creō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», make; elect, appoint «Creōn, -ontis», m. Creon, a king of Corinth «crēscō, -ere, crēvī, crētus», rise, grow, increase «Crēta, -ae», f. Crete, a large island in the Mediterranean «Crētaeus, -a, -um», adj. Cretan «crūs, crūris», n. leg «crūstulum, -ī», n. pastry, cake «cubīle, -is», n. bed «cultūra, -ae», f. culture, cultivation «cum», conj. with the indic. or subjv. when; since; although (§501.46) «cum», prep, with abl. with (§209) «cupidē», adv. [[«cupidus», desirous]], compared «cupidius, cupidissimē», eagerly «cupiditās, -ātis», f. [[«cupidus», desirous]], desire, longing «cupiō, -ere, -īvī» or «-iī, -ītus», desire, wish. Cf. «volō» «cūr», adv. why, wherefore «cūra, -ae», f. care, pains; anxiety «cūria, -ae», f. senate house «cūrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«cūra», care]], care for, attend to, look after «currō, -ere, cucurrī, cursus», run «currus, -ūs», m. chariot «cursus, -ūs», m. course «custōdiō, -īre, -īvī, -ītus» [[«custōs», guard]], guard, watch

«Daedalus, -ī», m. Dæd´alus, the supposed inventor of the first flying machine «Dāvus, -ī», m. Davus, name of a slave «dē», prep, with abl. down from, from; concerning, about, for (§209). «quā dē causā», for this reason, wherefore «dea, -ae», f. goddess (§461.a) «dēbeō, -ēre, -uī, -itus» [[«dē», from, + «habeō», hold]], owe, ought, should «decem», indecl. numeral adj. ten «dē-cernō, -ere, -crēvī, -crētus» [[«dē», from, + «cernō», separate]], decide, decree «dē-cidō, -ere, -cidī», ---- [[«dē», down, + «cadō», fall]], fall down «decimus, -a, -um», numeral adj. tenth «dēclīvis, -e», adj. sloping downward «dē-dō, -ere, -didī, -ditus», give up, surrender, «sē dēdere», surrender one’s self «dē-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus» [[«dē», down, + «dūcō», lead]], lead down, escort «dē-fendō, -ere, -dī, -fēnsus», ward off, repel, defend «dē-ferō, -ferre, -tulī, -lātus» [[«dē», down, + «ferō», bring]], bring down; report, announce (§426) «dē-fessus, -a, -um», adj. tired out, weary «dē-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus» [[«dē», from, + «faciō», make]], fail, be wanting; revolt from «dē-fīgō, -ere, -fīxī, -fīxus» [[«dē», down, + «fīgō», fasten]], fasten, fix «dē-iciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectus» [[«dē», down, + «iaciō», hurl]], hurl down; bring down, kill «de-inde», adv. (from thence), then, in the next place «dēlectō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», delight «dēleō, -ēre, -ēvī, -ētus», blot out, destroy «dēlīberō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», weigh, deliberate, ponder «dē-ligō, -ere, -lēgī, -lēctus» [[«dē», from, + «legō», gather]], choose, select «Delphicus, -a, -um», adj. Delphic «dēmissus, -a, -um» [[part. of «dēmittō», send down]], downcast, humble «dē-mōnstrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«dē», out, + «mōnstrō», point]], point out, show «dēmum», adv. at last, not till then. «tum dēmum», then at last «dēnique», adv. at last, finally. Cf. «postrēmō» «dēns, dentis», m. tooth (§247.2.a) «dēnsus, -a, -um», adj. dense, thick «dē-pendeō, -ēre», ----, ---- [[«dē», down, + «pendeō», hang]], hang from, hang down «dē-plōrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«dē», intensive, + «plōrō», wail]], bewail, deplore «dē-pōnō, -ere, -posuī, -positus» [[«dē», down, + «pōnō», put]], put down «dē-scendō, -ere, -dī, -scēnsus» [[«dē», down, + «scandō», climb]], climb down, descend «dē-scrībō, -ere, -scrīpsī, -scrīptus» [[«dē», down, + «scrībō», write]], write down «dēsīderō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», long for «dē-siliō, -īre, -uī, -sultus» [[«dē», down, + «saliō», leap]], leap down «dē-spērō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«dē», away from, + «spērō», hope]], despair «dē-spiciō, -ere, -spēxi, -spectus» [[«dē», down]], look down upon, despise «dē-sum, -esse, -fuī, -futūrus» [[«dē», away from, + «sum», be]], be wanting, lack, with dat. (§426) «deus, -ī», m. god (§468) «dē-volvō, -ere, -volvī, -volūtus» [[«dē», down, + «volvō», roll]], roll down «dē-vorō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«dē», down, + «vorō», swallow]], devour «dexter, -tra, -trum» («-tera, -terum»), adj. to the right, right. «ā dextrō cornū», on the right wing «Diāna, -ae», f. Diana, goddess of the moon and twin sister of Apollo «dīcō, -ere, dīxī, dictus» (imv. «dīc»), say, speak, tell. Usually introduces indirect discourse (§420.a) «dictātor, -ōris», m. [[«dictō», dictate]], dictator, a chief magistrate with unlimited power «diēs, -ēi» or «diē», m., sometimes f. in sing., day (§467) «dif-ferō, -ferre, distulī, dīlātus» [[«dis-», apart, + «ferō», carry]], carry apart; differ. «differre inter sē», differ from each other «dif-ficilis, -e», adj. [[«dis-», not, + «facilis», easy]], hard, difficult (§307) «difficultās, -ātis», f. [[«difficilis», hard]], difficulty «dīligenter», adv. [[«dīligēns», careful]], compared «dīligentius, dīligentissimē», industriously, diligently «dīligentia, -ae», f. [[«dīligēns», careful]], industry, diligence «dī-micō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», fight, struggle «dī-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus» [[«dī-», off, + «mittō», send]], send away, dismiss, disband. «dīmittere animum in», direct one’s mind to, apply one’s self to «Diomēdēs, -is», m. Dī-o-mē´dēs, a name «dis-, dī-», a prefix expressing separation, off, apart, in different directions. Often negatives the meaning «dis-cēdō, -ere, -cessī, -cessus» [[«dis-», apart, + «cēdō», go]], depart from, leave, withdraw, go away «dis-cernō, -ere, -crēvī, -crētus» [[«dis-», apart, + «cernō», sift]], separate; distinguish «disciplīna, -ae», f. instruction, training, discipline «discipulus, -ī», m. [[«discō», learn]], pupil, disciple «discō, -ere, didicī», ----, learn «dis-cutiō, -ere, -cussī, -cussus» [[«dis-», apart, + «quatiō», shake]], shatter, dash to pieces «dis-pōnō, -ere, -posuī, -positus» [[«dis-», apart, + «pōnō», put]], put here and there, arrange, station «dis-similis, -e», adj. [[«dis-», apart, + «similis», like]], unlike, dissimilar (§307) «dis-tribuō, -ere, -uī, -ūtus», divide, distribute «diū», adv., compared «diūtius, diūtissimē», for a long time, long (§477) «dō, dare, dedī, datus», give. «in fugam dare», put to flight. «alicui negōtium dare», employ some one «doceō, -ēre, -uī, -tus», teach, show «doctrīna, -ae», f. [[«doctor», teacher]], teaching, learning, wisdom «dolor, -ōris», m. pain, sorrow «domesticus, -a, -um», adj. [[«domus», house]], of the house, domestic «domicilium, domici´lī», n. dwelling; house, abode. Cf. «domus» «domina, -ae», f. mistress (of the house), lady (§461) «dominus, -ī», m. master (of the house), owner, ruler (§462) «domus, -ūs», f. house, home. «domī», locative, at home (§468) «dormiō, -īre, -īvī, -ītus», sleep «dracō, -ōnis», m. serpent, dragon «dubitō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», hesitate «dubius, -a, -um», adj. [[«duo», two]], (moving two ways), doubtful, dubious «du-centī, -ae, -a», numeral adj. two hundred «dūcō, -ere, dūxī, ductus» (imv. «dūc»), lead, conduct «dum», conj. while, as long as «duo, duae, duo», numeral adj. two (§479) «duo-decim», indecl. numeral adj. twelve «dūrus, -a, -um», adj. hard, tough; harsh, pitiless, bitter «dux, ducis», m. and f. [[cf. «dūcō», lead]], leader, commander

«ē» or «ex», prep, with abl. out of, from, off, of (§209) «eburneus, -a, -um», adj. of ivory «ecce», adv. see! behold! there! here! «ē-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus» [[«ē», out, + «dūcō», lead]], lead out, draw out «ef-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus» [[«ex», thoroughly, + «faciō», do]], work out; make, cause «ef-fugiō, -ere, -fūgī, -fugitūrus» [[«ex», from, + «fugiō», flee]], escape «egeō, -ēre, -uī», ----, be in need of, lack, with abl. (§501.32) «ego», pers. pron. I; plur. «nōs», we (§480) «ē-gredior, -ī, ēgressus sum», dep. verb [[«ē», out of, + «gradior», go]], go out, go forth. «ē nāvī ēgredī», disembark «ē-iciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectus» [[«ē», forth, + «iaciō», hurl]], hurl forth, expel «elementum, -ī», n., in plur. first principles, rudiments «elephantus, -ī», m. elephant «Ēlis, Ēlidis», f. E´lis, a district of southern Greece «emō, -ere, ēmī, ēmptus», buy, purchase «enim», conj., never standing first, for, in fact, indeed. Cf. «nam» «Ennius, Ennī», m. Ennius, the father of Roman poetry, born 239 B.C. «eō, īre, iī» («īvī»), «itūrus», go (§499) «eō», adv. to that place, thither «Ēpīrus, -ī», f. Epi´rus, a district in the north of Greece «eques, -itis», m. [[«equus», horse]], horseman, cavalryman «equitātus, -ūs», m. [[«equitō», ride]], cavalry «equus, -ī», m. horse «ē-rigō, -ere, -rēxī, -rēctus» [[«ē», out, + «regō», make straight]], raise up «ē-ripiō, -ere, -uī, -reptus» [[«ē», out of, + «rapiō», seize]], seize, rescue «ē-rumpō, -ere, -rūpī, -ruptus» [[«ē», forth, + «rumpō», break]], burst forth «ēruptiō, -ōnis», f. sally «Erymanthius, -a, -um», adj. Erymanthian, of Erymanthus, a district in southern Greece «et», conj. and, also. «et ... et», both ... and. Cf. «atque, ac, -que» «etiam», adv. (rarely conj.) [[«et», also, + «iam», now]], yet, still; also, besides. Cf. «quoque». «nōn sōlum ... sed etiam», not only ... but also «Etrūscī, -ōrum», m. the Etruscans, the people of Etruria. See map of Italy «Eurōpa, -ae», f. Europe «Eurystheus, -ī», m. Eurys´theus, a king of Tiryns, a city in southern Greece «ē-vādō, -ere, -vāsī, -vāsus» [[«ē», out, + «vādō», go]], go forth, escape «ex», see «ē» «exanimātus, -a, -um» [[part. of «exanimō», put out of breath («anima»)]], adj. out of breath, tired; lifeless «ex-cipiō, -ere, -cēpī, -ceptus» [[«ex», out, + «capiō», take]], welcome, receive «exemplum, -ī», n. example, model «ex-eō,-īre,-iī,-itūrus» [[«ex», out, + «eō», go]], go out, go forth (§413) «ex-erceō, -ēre, -uī, -itus» [[«ex», out, + «arceō», shut]], (shut out), employ, train, exercise, use «exercitus, -us», m. [[«exerceō», train]], army «ex-īstimō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«ex», out, + «aestimō», reckon]], estimate; think, judge (§420.c). Cf. «arbitror, putō» «ex-orior, -īrī, -ortus sum», dep. verb [[«ex», forth, + «orior», rise]], come forth, rise «expedītus, -a, -um», adj. without baggage «ex-pellō, -ere, -pulī, -pulsus» [[«ex», out, + «pellō», drive]], drive out «ex-piō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«ex», intensive, + «pīo», atone for]], make amends for, atone for «explōrātor, -ōris», m. [[«explōrō», investigate]], spy, scout «explōrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», examine, explore «ex-pugnō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«ex», out, + «pugnō», fight]], take by storm, capture «exsilium, exsi´lī», n. [[«exsul», exile]], banishment, exile «ex-spectō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«ex», out, + «spectō», look]], expect, wait «ex-struō, -ere, -strūxī, -strūctus» [[«ex», out, + «struō», build]], build up, erect «exterus, -a, -um», adj., compared «exterior, extrēmus» or «extimus», outside, outer (§312) «extrā», prep, with acc. beyond, outside of «ex-trahō, -ere, -trāxī, -trāctus» [[«ex», out, + «trahō», drag]], drag out, pull forth «extrēmus, -a, -um», adj., superl. of «exterus», utmost, farthest (§312)

«fābula, -ae», f. story, tale, fable «facile», adv. [[«facilis», easy]], compared «facilius, facillimē», easily (§322) «facilis, -e», adj. [[cf. «faciō», make]], easy, without difficulty (§307) «faciō, -ere, fēcī, factus» (imv. «fac»), make, do; cause, bring about. «impetum facere in», make an attack upon. «proelium facere», fight a battle. «iter facere», make a march or journey. «aliquem certiōrem facere», inform some one. «facere verba prō», speak in behalf of. Passive «fīō, fierī, factus sum», be done, happen. «certior fierī», be informed «fallō, -ere, fefellī, falsus», trip, betray, deceive «fāma, -ae», f. report, rumor; renown, fame, reputation «famēs, -is» (abl. «famē»), f. hunger «familia, -ae», f. servants, slaves; household, family «fascēs, -ium» (plur. of «fascis»), f. fasces (p. 225) «fastīgium, fastī´gī», n. top; slope, descent «fātum, -ī», n. fate, destiny «faucēs, -ium», f. plur. jaws, throat «faveō, -ēre, fāvī, fautūrus», be favorable to, favor, with dat. (§501.14) «fēlīx, -īcis», adj. happy, lucky «fēmina, -ae», f. woman. Cf. «mulier» «fera, -ae», f. [[«ferus», wild]], wild beast «ferāx, -ācis», adj. fertile «ferē», adv. about, nearly, almost «ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus», bear. «graviter» or «molestē ferre», be annoyed (§498) «ferreus, -a, -um», adj. [[«ferrum», iron]], made of iron «fidēlis, -e», adj. [[«fidēs», trust]], faithful, true «fidēs, fideī» or «fidē», trust, faith; promise, word; protection. «in fidem venīre», come under the protection. «in fidē manēre», remain loyal «fīlia, -ae» (dat. and abl. plur. «fīliābus»), f. daughter (§461.a) «fīlius, fīlī» (voc. sing, «fīlī»), m. son «fīnis, -is», m. boundary, limit, end; in plur. territory, country (§243.1) «fīnitimus, -a, -um», adj. [[«fīnis», boundary]], adjoining, neighboring. Plur. «fīnitimī, -ōrum», m. neighbors «fīō, fierī, factus sum», used as passive of «faciō». See «faciō» (§500) «flamma, -ae», f. fire, flame «flōs, flōris», m. flower «fluctus, -ūs», m. [[of. «fluō», flow]], flood, wave, billow «flūmen, -inis», n. [[cf. «fluō», flow]], river (§464.2.b) «fluō, -ere, flūxī, fluxus», flow «fluvius, fluvī», m. [[cf. «fluō», flow]], river «fodiō, -ere, fōdī, fossus», dig «fōns, fontis», m. fountain (§247.2.a) «fōrma, -ae», f. form, shape, appearance; beauty «Formiae, -ārum», f. Formiae, a town of Latium on the Appian Way. See map «forte», adv. [[abl. of «fors», chance]], by chance «fortis, -e», adj. strong; fearless, brave «fortiter», adv. [[«fortis», strong]], compared «fortius, fortissimē», strongly; bravely «fortūna, -ae», f. [[«fors», chance]], chance, fate, fortune «forum, -ī», n. market place, esp. the «Forum Rōmānum», where the life of Rome centered «Forum Appī», Forum of Appius, a town in Latium on the Appian Way «fossa, -ae», f. [[cf. «fodiō», dig]], ditch «fragor, -ōris», m. [[cf. «frangō», break]], crash, noise «frangō, -ere, frēgī, frāctus», break «frāter, -tris», m. brother «fremitus, -ūs», m. loud noise «frequentō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», attend «frētus, -a, -um», adj. supported, trusting. Usually with abl. of means «frōns, frontis», f. front, «ā fronte», in front «frūctus, -ūs», m. fruit «frūmentārius, -a, -um», adj. pertaining to grain. «rēs frūmentāria», grain supplies «frūmentum, -ī», n. grain «frūstrā», adv. in vain, vainly «fuga, -ae», f. [[cf. «fugiō», flee]], flight. «in fugam dare», put to flight «fugiō, -ere, fūgī, fugitūrus», flee, run; avoid, shun «fūmō, -are, ------, ------», smoke «fūnis, -is», m. rope «furor, -ōris», m. [[«furō», rage]], madness. «in furōrem incīdere», go mad

«Gāius, Gāī», m. Gaius, a Roman name, abbreviated «C.», English form Caius «Galba, -ae», m. Galba, a Roman name «galea, -ae», f. helmet «Gallia, -ae», f. Gaul, the country comprising what is now Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and France «Gallicus, -a, -um», adj. Gallic «gallīna, -ae», f. hen, chicken «Gallus, -ī», m. a Gaul «gaudium, gaudī», n. joy «Genāva, -ae», f. Geneva, a city in Switzerland «gēns, gentis», f. [[cf. «gignō», beget]], race, family; people, nation, tribe «genus, -eris», n. kind, variety «Germānia, -ae», f. Germany «Germānus, -ī», m. a German «gerō, -ere, gessī, gestus», carry, wear; wage. «bellum gerere», wage war. «rēs gestae», exploits. «bene gerere», carry on successfully «gladiātōrius, -a, -um», adj. gladiatorial «gladius, gladī», m. sword «glōria, -ae», f. glory, fame «Gracchus, -ī», m. Gracchus, name of a famous Roman family «gracilis, -e», adj. slender (§307) «Graeca, -ōrum», n. plur. Greek writings, Greek literature «Graecē», adv. in Greek «Graecia, -ae», f. Greece «grammaticus, -ī», m. grammarian «grātia, -ae», f. thanks, gratitude «grātus, -a, -um», adj. acceptable, pleasing. Often with dat. (§501.16) «gravis, -ē», adj. heavy; disagreeable; serious, dangerous; earnest, weighty «graviter», adv. [[«gravis», heavy]], compared «gravius, gravissimē», heavily; greatly, seriously. «graviter ferre», bear ill, take to heart «gubernātor, -ōris», m. [[«gubernō», pilot]], pilot

«habēna, -ae», f. halter, rein. «habeō, -ēre, -uī, -itus», have, hold; regard, consider, deem «habitō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[cf. «habeō», have]], dwell, abide, inhabit. Cf. «incolō, vīvō» «hāc-tenus», adv. thus far «Helvētiī, -ōrum», m. the Helvetii, a Gallic tribe «Herculēs, -is», m. Hercules, son of Jupiter and Alcmena, and god of strength «Hesperidēs, -um», f. the Hesperides, daughters of Hesperus, who kept the garden of the golden apples «hic, haec, hoc», demonstrative adj. and pron. this (of mine); as pers. pron. he, she, it (§481) «hīc», adv. here «hiems, -emis», f. winter «hīnc», adv. [[«hīc», here]], from here, hence «Hippolytē, -ēs», f. Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons «ho-diē», adv. [[modified form of «hōc diē», on this day]], to-day «homō, -inis», m. and f. (human being), man, person «honestus, -a, -um», adv. [[«honor», honor]], respected, honorable «honor, -ōris», m. honor «hōra, -ae», f. hour «Horātius, Horā´tī», m. Horatius, a Roman name «horribilis, -e», adj. terrible, horrible «hortor, -āri, -ātus sum», dep. verb, urge, incite, exhort, encourage (§493) «hortus, -ī», m. garden «hospitium, hospi´tī», n. [[«hospes», host]], hospitality «hostis, -is», m. and f. enemy, foe (§465.a) «humilis, -e», adj. low, humble (§307) «Hydra, -ae», f. the Hydra, a mythical water snake slain by Hercules

«iaciō, -ere, iēcī, iactus», throw, hurl «iam», adv. now, already. «nec iam», and no longer «Iāniculum, -ī», n. the Janiculum, one of the hills of Rome «iānua, -ae», f. door «ibi», adv. there, in that place «Īcarus, -ī», m. Ic´arus, the son of Dædalus «ictus, -ūs», m. [[cf. «īcō», strike]], blow «īdem, e´adem, idem», demonstrative pron. [[«is» + «dem»]], same (§481) «idōneus, -a, -um», adj. suitable, fit «igitur», conj., seldom the first word, therefore, then. Cf. «itaque» «ignis, -is», m. fire (§§243.1; 247. 2.a; 465, 1) «ignōtus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», not, + «(g)notus», known]], unknown, strange «ille, illa, illud», demonstrative adj. and pron. that (yonder); as pers. pron. he, she, it (§481) «illīc», adv. [[cf. «ille»]], yonder, there «im-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus» [[«in», against, + «mittō», send]], send against; let in «immolō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«in», upon, + «mola», meal]], sprinkle with sacrificial meal; offer, sacrifice «im-mortālis, -e», adj. [[«in-», not, + «mortalis», mortal]], immortal «im-mortālitās, -ātis», f. [[«immortālis», immortal]], immortality «im-parātus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», not, + «parātus», prepared]], unprepared «impedīmentum», -ī, n. [[«impediō», hinder]], hindrance; in plur. baggage «impedītus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «impediō», hinder]], hindered, burdened «im-pellō, -ere, -pulī, -pulsus» [[«in», against, + «pellō», strike]], strike against; impel, drive, propel «imperātor, -ōris», m. [[«imperō», command]], general «imperium, impe´rī», n. [[«imperō», command]], command, order; realm, empire; power, authority «imperō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», command, order. Usually with dat. and an object clause of purpose (§501.41). With acc. object, levy, impose «impetus, -ūs», m. attack, «impetum facere in», make an attack upon «im-pōnō, -ere, -posui, -positus» [[«in», upon, + «pōnō», place]], place upon; impose, assign «in», prep, with acc. into, to, against, at, upon, towards; with abl. in, on. «in reliquum tempus», for the future «in-», inseparable prefix. With nouns and adjectives often with a negative force, like English un-, in- «in-cautus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», not, + «cautus», careful]], off one’s guard «incendium, incendī», n. flame, fire. Cf. «ignis, flamma» «in-cendō, -ere, -dī, -cēnsus», set fire to, burn «in-cidō, -ere, -cidī, ----», [[«in», in, on, + «cadō», fall]], fall in, fall on; happen. «in furōrem incidere», go mad «in-cipiō, -ere, -cēpi, -ceptus» [[«in», on, + «capiō», take]], begin «in-cognitus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», not, + «cognitus», known]], unknown «in-colō, -ere, -uī, ----», [[«in», in, + «colō», dwell]], inhabit; live «incolumis, -e», adj. sound, safe, uninjured, imharmed «in-crēdibilis, -e», adj. [[«in-», not, + «crēdibilis», to be believed]], incredible «inde», from that place, thence «induō, -ere, -uī, -ūtus», put on «indūtus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «induō», put on]], clothed «in-eō, -īre, -iī, -itus» [[«in», into, + «eō», go]], go into; enter upon, begin, with acc. (§413) «īn-fāns, -fantis», adj. [[«in-», not, + *«fāns», speaking]], not speaking. As a noun, m. and f. infant «īn-fēlīx, -īcis», adj. [[«in-», not, + «fēlīx», happy]], unhappy, unlucky «īnfēnsus, -a, -um», adj. hostile «īn´-ferō, īnfer´re, in´tulī, inlā´tus» [[«in», against, + «ferō», bear]], bring against or upon, inflict, with acc. and dat. (§501.15). «bellum īnferre», with dat., make war upon «īnferus, -a, -um», adj. low, below (§312). «īn-fīnītus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», not, + «fīnītus», bounded]], boundless, endless «īn-fīrmus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», not, + «fīrmus», strong]], weak, infirm «ingenium, inge´ni», n. talent, ability «ingēns, -entis», adj. vast, huge, enormous, large. Cf. «magnus» «in-gredior, -gredī, -gressus sum» [[«in», in, + «gradior», walk]], advance, enter «inimīcus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», not, + «amīcus», friendly]], hostile. As a noun, «inimīcus, -ī», m. enemy, foe. Cf. «hostis» «initium, ini´tī», entrance, beginning «initus, -a, -um», part. of «ineō». «initā aestāte», at the beginning of summer «iniūria, -ae», f. [[«in», against, + «iūs», law]], injustice, wrong, injury. «alicui iniūriās īnferre», inflict wrongs upon some one «inopia, -ae», f. [[«inops», needy]], want, need, lack «in-opīnāns, -antis», adj. [[«in-», not, + «opīnāns», thinking]], not expecting, taken by surprise «inquit», said he, said she. Regularly inserted in a direct quotation «in-rigō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», irrigate, water «in-rumpō, -ere, -rūpī, -ruptus» [[«in», into, + «rumpō», break]], burst in, break in «in-ruō, -ere, -ruī,----» [[«in», in, + «ruō», rush]], rush in «īn-sequor, -sequī, -secūtus sum», dep. verb [[«in», on, + «sequor», follow]], follow on, pursue «īn-signe, -is», n. badge, decoration (§465.b) «īnsignis, -e», adj. remarkable, noted «īnstāns, -antis», adj. [[part, of «īnsto», be at hand]], present, immediate «īn-stō, -āre, -stitī, -statūrus» [[«in», upon, + «stō», stand]], stand upon; be at hand; pursue, press on «īnstrūmentum, -ī», n. instrument «īn-struō, -ere, -strūxī, -strūctus» [[«in», on, + «struō», build]], draw up «īnsula, -ae», f. island «integer, -gra, -grum», untouched, whole; fresh, new «intellegō, -ere, -lēxī, -lēctus» [[«inter», between, +«legō», choose]], perceive, understand (§420.d) «intentō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», aim; threaten «inter», prep. with acc. between, among; during, while (§340) «interfectus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «inter-ficiō», kill]], slain, dead «inter-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus» [[«inter», between, + «faciō», make]], put out of the way, kill. Cf. «necō, occīdō, trucīdō» «interim», adv. meanwhile «interior, -ius», adj. interior, inner (§315) «inter-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus», leave off, suspend «interpres, -etis», m. and f. interpreter «inter-rogō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», question «inter-sum, -esse, -fuī, -futūrus» [[«inter», between, +«sum», be]], be present, take part in, with dat. (§501.15) «inter-vāllum, -ī», n. interval, distance «intrā», adv. and prep. with acc. within, in «intrō, -āre, -āvi, -ātus», go into, enter «in-veniō, -īre, -vēnī, -ventus» [[«in», upon, +«veniō», come]], find «invīsus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «invideō», envy]], hated, detested «Iolāus, -ī», m. I-o-lā´us, a friend of Hercules «ipse, -a, -um», intensive pron. that very, this very; self, himself, herself, itself, (§481) «īra, -ae», f. wrath, anger «īrātus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «īrāscor», be angry]], angered, enraged «is, ea, id», demonstrative adj. and pron. this, that; he, she, it (§481) «iste, -a, -ud», demonstrative adj. and pron. that (of yours), he, she, it (§481) «ita», adv. so, thus. Cf. «sīc» and «tam» «Italia, -ae», f. Italy «ita-que», conj. and so, therefore «item», adv. also «iter, itineris», n. journey, march, route; way, passage (§§247.1.a; 468). «iter dare», give a right of way, allow to pass. «iter facere», march (see p. 159) «iubeō, -ēre, iussī, iussus», order, command. Usually with the infin. and subj. acc. (§213) «iūdex, -icis», m. and f. judge (§464.1) «iūdicō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«iūdex», judge]], judge, decide (§420.c) «Iūlia, -ae», Julia, a Roman name «Iūlius, Iūlī», m. Julius, a Roman name «iungō, -ēre, iūnxī, iūnctus», join; yoke, harness «Iūnō, -ōnis», f. Juno, the queen of the gods and wife of Jupiter «Iuppiter, Iovis», m. Jupiter, the supreme god «iūrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», swear, take an oath «iussus, -a, -um», part. of «iubeō», ordered

«L.», abbreviation for «Lūcius» «labefactus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «labefaciō», cause to shake]], shaken, weakened, ready to fall «Labiēnus, -ī», m. La-bi-e´nus, one of Cæsar’s lieutenants «labor, -ōris», m. labor, toil «labōrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«labor», labor]], labor; suffer, be hard pressed «lacrima, -ae», f. tear «lacus, -ūs» (dat. and abl. plur. «lacubus»), m. lake «laetē», adv. [[«laetus», glad]], compared «laetius, laetissimē», gladly «laetitia, -ae», f. [[«laetus», glad]], joy «laetus, -a, -um», adj. glad, joyful «lapis, -idis», m. stone (§§247.2.a; 464.1) «Lār, Laris», m.; plur. «Larēs, -um» (rarely «-ium»), the Lares or household, gods «lātē, »adv. [[«lātus», wide]], compared «lātius, lātissimē», widely «Latinē», adv. in Latin. «Latīnē loquī», to speak Latin «lātitūdō, -inis», f. [[«lātus», wide]], width «Lātōna, -ae», f. Latona, mother of Apollo and Diana «latus, -a, -um», adj. wide «lātus, -eris», n. side, flank. «ab utrōque latere», on each side «laudō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«laus», praise]], praise «laurea, -ae», f. laurel «laureātus, -a, -um», adj. crowned with laurel «laus, laudis», f. praise «lectulus, -ī», m. couch, bed «lēgātus, -ī», m. ambassador; lieutenant «legiō, -ōnis», f. [[cf. «legō», gather]], (body of soldiers), legion, about 3600 men (§464.2.a) «legiōnārius, -a, -um», adj. legionary. Plur. «legiōnariī, -ōrum», m. the soldiers of the legion «legō, -ere, lēgī, lēctus», read «lēnis, -e», adj. gentle, smooth, mild «lēniter», adv. [[«lēnis», gentle]], compared «lēnius, lēnissimē», gently «Lentulus, -i», m. Lentulus, a Roman family name «leō, -ōnis», m. lion «Lernaeus, -a, -um», adj. Lernæean, of Lerna, in southern Greece «Lesbia, -ae», f. Lesbia, a girl’s name «levis, -e», adj. light «lēx, lēgis», f. measure, law «libenter», adv. [[«libēns», willing]], compared «libentius, libentissimē», willingly, gladly «līber, -era, -erum», adj. free (§469.b) «līberī, -ōrum», m. [[«līber», free]], children «līberō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«līber», free]], set free, release, liberate «lībertās, -ātis», f. [[«līber», free]], freedom, liberty «līctor, -ōris», m. lictor (p. 225) «līmus, -ī», m. mud «littera, -ae», f. a letter of the alphabet; in plur. a letter, epistle «lītus, -oris», n. seashore, beach «locus, -ī», m. (plur. «locī» and «loca», m. and n.), place, spot «longē», adv. [[«longus», long]], comp. «longius, longissimē», a long way off; by far «longinquus, -a, -um», adj. [[«longus», long]], distant, remote «longitūdō, -inis», f. [[«longus», long]], length «longus, -a, -um», adj. long «loquor, loqui, locūtus sum», dep. verb, talk, speak «lōrīca, -ae», f. [[«lōrum», thong]], coat of mail, corselet «lūdō, -ere, lūsī, lūsus», play «lūdus, -ī», m. play; school, the elementary grades. Cf. «schola» «lūna, -ae», f. moon «lūx, lūcis», f. (no gen. plur.), light. «prīma lūx», daybreak «Lȳdia, -ae», f. Lydia, a girl’s name

«M.», abbreviation for «Mārcus» «magicus, -a, -um», adj. magic «magis», adv. in comp. degree [[«magnus», great]], more, in a higher degree (§323) «magister, -trī», m. master, commander; teacher «magistrātus, -ūs», m. [[«magister», master]], magistracy; magistrate «magnitūdō, -inis», f. [[«magnus», great]], greatness, size «magnopere», adv. [[abl. of «magnum opus»]], compared «magis, maximē», greatly, exceedingly (§323) «magnus, -a, -um», adj., compared «maior, maximus», great, large; strong, loud (§311) «maior, maius, -ōris», adj., comp. of «magnus», greater, larger (§311) «maiōrēs, -um», m. plur. of «maior», ancestors «mālō, mālle, māluī, ----» [[«magis», more, + «volō», wish]], wish more, prefer (§497) «malus, -a, -um», adj., compared «peior, pessimus», bad, evil (§311) «mandō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«manus», hand, + «dō», put]], (put in hand), intrust; order, command «maneō, -ēre, mānsī, mānsūrus», stay, remain, abide «Mānlius, Mānlī», m. Manlius, a Roman name «mānsuētus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «mānsuēscō», tame]], tamed «manus, -ūs», f. hand; force, band «Mārcus, -ī», m. Marcus, Mark, a Roman first name «mare, -is», n. (no gen. plur.), sea. «mare tenēre», be out to sea «margō, -inis», m. edge, border «marītus, -ī», m. husband «Marius, Marī», m. Marius, a Roman name, esp. C. Marius, the general «Mārtius, -a, -um», adj. of Mars, esp. the Campus Martius «māter, -tris», f. mother «mātrimōnium, mātrimō´nī», n. marriage. «in mātrimōnium dūcere», marry «mātūrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», hasten. Cf. «contendō», «properō» «mātūrus, -a, -um», adj. ripe, mature «maximē», adv. in superl. degree [[«maximus», greatest]], compared «magnopere, magis, maximē», especially, very much (§323) «maximus, -a, -um», adj., superl. of «magnus», greatest, extreme (§311) «medius, -a, -um», adj. middle part; middle, intervening «melior, -ius, -ōris», adj., comp. of «bonus», better (§311) «melius», adv. in comp. degree, compared «bene, melius, optimē», better (§323) «memoria, -ae», f. [[«memor», mindful]], memory. «memoriā tenēre», remember «mēns, mentis», f. mind. Cf. «animus» «mēnsis, -is», m. month (§247.2. a) «mercātor, -ōris», m. [[«mercor», trade]], trader, merchant «merīdiānus, -a, -um», adj. [[«merīdiēs», noon]], of midday «merīdiēs, ----» (acc. «-em», abl. «-ē»), m. [[«medius», mid, + «diēs», day]], noon «metus, -ūs», m. fear, dread «meus, -a, -um», possessive adj. and pron. my, mine (§98) «mīles, -itis», m. soldier (§464.1) «mīlitāris, -e», adj. [[«mīles», soldier]], military. «rēs mīlitāris», science of war «mīlitō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«mīles», soldier]], serve as a soldier «mīlle», plur. «mīlia, -ium», numeral adj. and subst. thousand (§479) «minimē», adv. in superl. degree, compared «parum, minus, minimē», least, very little; by no means (§323) «minimus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «parvus, minor, minimus», least, smallest (§311) «minor, minus, -ōris», adj. in comp. degree, compared «parvus, minor, minimus», smaller, less (§311) «Mīnōs, -ōis», m. Minos, a king of Crete «minus», adv. in comp. degree, compared «parum, minus, minimē», less (§323) «Minyae, -ārum», m. the Minyae, a people of Greece «mīrābilis, -e», adj. [[«mīror», wonder at]], wonderful, marvelous «mīror, -ārī, -ātus sum», dep. verb [[«mīrus», wonderful]], wonder, marvel, admire «mīrus, -a, -um», adj. wonderful «Mīsēnum, -ī», Mise´num, a promontory and harbor on the coast of Campania. See map «miser, -era, -erum», adj. wretched, unhappy, miserable «missus, -a, -um», part. of «mittō», sent «mittō, -ere, mīsī, missus», send «modicus, -a, -um» [[«modus», measure]], modest, ordinary «modo», adv. [[abl. of «modus», measure, with shortened «o»]], only, merely, just now. «modo ... modo», now ... now, sometimes ... sometimes «modus, -ī», m. measure; manner, way; kind «moenia, -ium», n. plur. [[cf. «mūniō», fortify]], walls, ramparts «molestē», adv. [[«molestus», troublesome]], compared «molestius, molestissimē», annoyingly. «molestē ferre», to be annoyed «molestus, -a, -um», troublesome, annoying, unpleasant (§501.16) «moneō, -ēre, -uī, -itus», remind, advise, warn (§489) «mōns, montis», m. mountain (§247.2. a) «mōnstrum, -ī», n. monster «mora, -ae», f. delay «moror, -ārī, -ātus sum», dep. verb [[«mora», delay]], delay, linger; impede «mors, mortis», f. [[cf. «morior», die]], death «mōs, mōris», m. custom, habit «mōtus, -ūs», m. [[cf. «moveō», move]], motion, movement. «terrae mōtus», earthquake «moveō, -ēre, mōvī, mōtus», move «mox», adv. soon, presently «mulier, -eris», f. woman «multitūdō, -inis», f. [[«multus», much]], multitude «multum (multō)», adv. [[«multus», much]], compared «plūs, plūrimum», much (§477) «multus, -a, -um», adj., compared «plūs, plūrimus», much; plur. many (§311) «mūniō, -īre, -īvī or -iī, -ītus», fortify, defend «mūnītiō, -ōnis», f. [[«mūniō», fortify]], defense, fortification «mūrus, -ī», m. wall. Cf. «moenia» «mūsica, -ae», f. music

«nam», conj. for. Cf. «enim» «nam-que», conj., a strengthened «nam», introducing a reason or explanation, for, and in fact; seeing that «nārrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», tell, relate «nāscor, nāscī, nātus sum», dep. verb, be born, spring from «nātūra, -ae», f. nature «nātus», part. of «nāscor» «nauta, -ae», m. [[for «nāvita», from «nāvis», ship]], sailor «nāvālis, -e», adj. [[«nāvis», ship]], naval «nāvigium, nāvi´gī», n. ship, boat «nāvigō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«nāvis», ship, + «agō», drive]], sail, cruise «nāvis, -is» (abl. -ī or -e), f. ship (§243.1). «nāvem cōnscendere», embark, go on board. «nāvem solvere», set sail. «nāvis longa», man-of-war «nē», conj. and adv. in order that not, that (with verbs of fearing), lest; not. «nē ... quidem», not even «-ne», interrog. adv., enclitic (see §§16, 210). Cf. «nōnne» and «num» «nec» or «neque», conj. [[«nē», not, + «que», and]], and not, nor. «nec ... nec» or «neque ... neque», neither ... nor «necessārius, -a, -um», adj. needful, necessary «necō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[cf. nex, death]], kill. Cf. «interficiō, occīdō, trucīdō» «negō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», deny, say not (§420.a) «negōtium, negō´tī», n. [[«nec», not, + «ōtium», ease]], business, affair, matter. «alicui negōtium dare», to employ some one «Nemaeus, -a, -um», adj. Neme´an, of Neme´a, in southern Greece «nēmō», dat. «nēminī» (gen. «nūllīus», abl. «nūllō», supplied from «nūllus»), m. and f. [[«nē», not, + «homō», man]], (not a man), no one, nobody «Neptūnus, -ī», m. Neptune, god of the sea, brother of Jupiter «neque», see «nec» «neuter, -tra, -trum» (gen. «-trīus», dat. «-trī»), adj. neither (of two) (§108) «nē-ve», conj. adv. and not, and that not, and lest «nihil», n. indecl. [[«nē», not, + «hīlum», a whit]], nothing. «nihil posse», to have no power «nihilum, -ī», n., see «nihil» «Niobē, -ēs», f. Ni´obe, the queen of Thebes whose children were destroyed by Apollo and Diana «nisi», conj. [[«nē», not, + «sī», if]], if not, unless, except «nōbilis, -e», adj. well known; noble «noceō, -ēre, -uī, -itūrus» [[cf. «necō», kill]], hurt, injure, with dat. (§501.14) «noctū», abl. used as adv. [[cf. «nox», night]], at night, by night «Nōla, -ae», f. Nola, a town in central Campania. See map «nōlō, nōlle, nōluī», ---- [[«ne», not, + «volō», wish]], not to wish, be unwilling (§497) «nōmen, -inis», n. [[cf. «nōscō», know]], (means of knowing), name «nōminō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«nōmen», name]], name, call. Cf. «appellō, vocō» «nōn», adv. [[«nē», not, + «ūnum», one]], not. «nōn sōlum ... sed etiam», not only ... but also «nōn-dum», adv. not yet «nōn-ne», interrog. adv. suggesting an affirmative answer, not? (§210). Cf. «-ne» and «num» «nōs», pers. pron. we (see «ego») (§480) «noster, -tra, -trum», possessive adj. and pron. our, ours. Plur. «nostrī, -ōrum», m. our men (§98) «novem», indecl. numeral adj. nine «novus, -a, -um», adj. new. «novae rēs», a revolution «nox, noctis», f. night, «multā nocte», late at night «nūllus, -a, -um» (gen. «-īus», dat. «-ī») adj. [[«nē», not, + «ūllus», any]], not any, none, no (§108) «num», interrog. adv. suggesting a negative answer (§210). Cf. «-ne» and «nōnne». In indir. questions, whether «numerus, -ī», m. number «numquam», adv. [[«nē», not, + «umquam», ever]], never «nunc», adv. now. Cf. «iam» «nūntiō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«nūntius», messenger]], report, announce (§420.a) «nūntius, nūntī», m. messenger «nūper», adv. recently, lately, just now «nympha, -ae», f. nymph

«ob», prep. with acc. on account of. In compounds it often means in front of, against, or it is intensive. «quam ob rem», for this reason (§340) «obses, -idis», m. and f. hostage «ob-sideō,-ēre,-sēdī, -sessus» [[«ob», against, + «sedeō», sit]], besiege «obtineō, -ēre, -uī, -tentus» [[«ob», against, + «teneō», hold]], possess, occupy, hold «occāsiō, -ōnis», f. favorable opportunity, favorable moment «occāsus, -ūs», m. going down, setting «occīdō, -ere, -cīdī, -cīsus» [[«ob», down, + «caedō», strike]], strike down; cut down, kill. Cf. «interficiō, necō» «occupō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«ob», completely, + «capiō», take]], seize, take possession of, occupy. Cf. «rapio» «oc-currō, -ere, -currī, -cursus» [[«ob», against + «currō», run]], run towards; meet, with dat. (§426) «ōceanus, -ī», m. the ocean «octō», indecl. numeral adj. eight «oculus, -ī», m. eye «officium, offi´cī», n. duty «ōlim», adv. formerly, once upon a time «ōmen, -inis», n. sign, token, omen «ō-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus» [[«ob», over, past, + «mittō», send]], let go, omit. «consilium omittere», give up a plan «omnīnō», adv. [[«omnis», all]], altogether, wholly, entirely «omnis, -e», adj. all, every. Cf. «tōtus» «onerāria, -ae», f. [[«onus», load]], with «nāvis» expressed or understood, merchant vessel, transport «onus, -eris», n. load, burden «opīniō, -ōnis», f. [[«opīnor», suppose]], opinion, supposition, expectation «oppidānus, -ī», m. [[«oppidum», town]], townsman «oppidum, -ī», n. town, stronghold «opportūnus, -a, -um», adj. suitable, opportune, favorable «op-primō, -ere, -pressī, -pressus» [[«ob», against, + «premō», press]], (press against), crush; surprise «oppugnātiō, -ōnis», f. storming, assault «oppugnō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«ob», against, + «pugnō» fight]], fight against, assault, storm, assail «optimē», adv. in superl. degree, compared «bene, melius, optimē», very well, best of all (§323) «optimus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «bonus, melior, optimus», best, most excellent (§311) «opus, -eris», n. work, labor, task (§464.2.b) «ōrāculum, -ī», n. [[«ōrō», speak]], oracle «ōrātor, -ōris», m. [[«ōrō», speak]], orator «orbis, -is», m. ring, circle. «orbis terrārum», the earth, world «orbita, -ae», f. [[«orbis», wheel]], rut «Orcus, -ī», m. Orcus, the lower world «ōrdō, -inis», m. row, order, rank (§247.2.a) «orīgo, -inis», f. [[«orior», rise]], source, origin «orior, -īrī, ortus sum», dep. verb, arise, rise, begin; spring, be born «ōrnāmentum, -ī», n. [[«ōrnō», fit out]], ornament, jewel «ōrnātus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «ōrnō», fit out]] fitted out; adorned «ōrnō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», fit out, adorn

«P.», abbreviation for «Pūblius» «paene», adv. nearly, almost «palūdāmentum, -ī», n. military cloak «palūs, -ūdis», f. swamp, marsh «pānis, -is», m. bread «pār, paris», adj. equal (§471. III) «parātus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «parō», prepare]], prepared, ready «parcō, -ere, peper´cī» («parsī»), «parsūrus», spare, with dat. (§501.14) «pāreō, -ēre, -uī, ----», obey, with dat. (§501.14) «parō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», prepare for, prepare; provide, procure «pars, partis», f. part, share; side, direction «parum», adv., compared «minus, minimē», too little, not enough (§323) «parvus, -a, -um», adj., compared «minor, minimus», small, little (§311) «passus, -ūs», m. step, pace. «mīlle passuum», thousand paces, mile (§331.b) «pateō, -ēre, patuī, ----», lie open, be open; stretch, extend «pater, -tris», m. father (§464.2.a) «patior, -ī, passus sum», dep. verb, bear, suffer, allow, permit «patria, -ae», f. [[cf. «pater», father]], fatherland, (one’s) country «paucus, -a, -um», adj. (generally plur.), few, only a few «paulisper», adv. for a little while «paulō», adv. by a little, little «paulum» adv. a little, somewhat «pāx, pācis», f. (no gen. plur.), peace «pecūnia, -ae», f. [[«pecus», cattle]], money «pedes, -itis», m. [[«pēs», foot]], foot soldier «pedester, -tris, -tre», adj. [[«pēs», foot]], on foot; by land «peior, peius, -ōris», adj. in comp. degree, compared «malus, peior, pessimus», worse (§311) «pellis, -is», f. skin, hide «penna, -ae», f. feather «per», prep. with acc. through, by means of, on account of. In composition it often has the force of thoroughly, completely, very (§340) «percussus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «percutiō», strike through]], pierced «per-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus» [[«per», through, + «dūcō», lead]], lead through. «fossam perdūcere», to construct a ditch «per-exiguus, -a, -um», adj. [[«per», very, + «exiguus», small]], very small, very short «perfidus, -a, -um», adj. faithless, treacherous, false «per-fringō, -ere, -frēgī, -frāctus» [[«per», through, «frangō», break]], shatter «pergō, -ere, perrēxī, perrēctus» [[«per», through, + «regō», conduct]], go on, proceed, hasten «perīculum, -ī», n. trial, test; danger «peristȳlum, -ī», n. peristyle, an open court with columns around it «perītus, -a, -um», adj. skillful «perpetuus, -a, -um», adj. perpetual «Perseus, -eī», Perseus, a Greek hero, son of Jupiter and Danaë «persōna, -ae», f. part, character, person «per-suādeō, -ēre, -suāsī, -suāsus» [[«per», thoroughly, + «suādeō», persuade]], persuade, advise, with dat. (§501.14), often with an object clause of purpose (§501.41) «per-terreō, -ēre, -uī, -itus» [[«per», thoroughly, + «terreō», frighten]], thoroughly terrify, alarm «per-veniō, -īre, -vēnī, -ventus» [[«per», through, + «veniō», come]], arrive, reach, come to «pēs, pedis», m. foot. «pedem referre», retreat (§247.2.a) «pessimus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «malus, peior, pessimus», worst (§311) «petō, -ere, -īvī or -iī, -ītus», strive for, seek, beg, ask; make for, travel to. Cf. «postulō, quaerō, rogō» «Pharsālus, -ī», f. Pharsa´lus or Pharsa´lia, a town in Thessaly, near which Cassar defeated Pompey, 48 B.C. «philosophia, -ae», f. philosophy «philosophus, -ī», m. philosopher «pictus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «pingō», paint]], colored, variegated «pīlum, -ī», n. spear, javelin (§462.b) «piscīna, -ae», f. [[«piscis», fish]], fish pond «piscis, -is», m. fish «pīstor, -ōris», m. baker «placeō. -ēre, -uī, -itus», please, be pleasing, with dat. (§501.14) «plānitiēs, -ēī», f. [[«plānus», level]], plain «plānus, -a, -um», adj. level, flat «plēnus, -a, -um», full «plūrimum», adv. in superl. degree, compared «multum, plūs, plūrimum», very much. «plūrimum valēre», be most influential (§322) «plūrimus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «multus, plūs, plūrimus», most, very many (§311) «plūs, plūris», adj. in comp. degree, compared «multus, plūs, plūrimus»; sing. n. as substantive, more; plur. more, several (§311) «pluteus, -ī», m. shield, parapet «poena, -ae», f. punishment, penalty «poēta, -ae», m. poet «pompa, -ae», f. procession «Pompēiī, -ōrum», m. Pompeii, a city of Campania. See map «Pompēius, Pompē´ī», m. Pompey, a Roman name «pōmum, -ī», n. apple «pōnō, -ere, posuī, positus», put, place. «castra pōnere», pitch camp «pōns, pontis», m. bridge (§247.2.a) «popīna, -ae», f. restaurant «populus, -ī», m. people «Porsena, -ae», m. Porsena, king of Etruria, a district of Italy. See map «porta, -ae», f. gate, door «portō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», bear, carry «portus, -ūs», m. [[cf. «porta», gate]], harbor «possideō, -ēre, -sēdī, -sessus», have, own, possess «possum, posse, potuī, ----», irreg. verb [[«potis», able, + «sum», I am]], be able, can (§495). «nihil posse», have no power «post», prep, with acc. after, behind (§340) «posteā», adv. [[«post», after, + «eā», this]], afterwards («posterus»), «-a, -um», adj., compared «posterior, postrēmus» or «postumus», following, next (§312) «postquam», conj. after, as soon as «postrēmō», adv. [[abl. of «postrēmus», last]], at last, finally. Cf. «dēmum, dēnique» (§322) «postrīdiē», adv. [[«posterō», next, + «diē», day]], on the next day «postulō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», ask, demand, require. Cf. «petō, quaerō, rogō» «potentia, -ae», f. [[«potēns», able]], might, power, force «prae-beō, -ēre, -uī, -itus» [[«prae», forth, + «habeō», hold]], offer, give «praeda, -ae», f. booty, spoil, plunder «prae-dīcō, -ere, -dīxī, -dictus» [[«prae», before, + «dīcō», tell]], foretell, predict «prae-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus» [[«prae», before, + «faciō», make]], place in command, with acc. and dat. (§501.15) «prae-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus» [[«prae», forward, + «mittō», send]], send forward «praemium, praemī», n. reward, prize «praeruptus, -a, -um» [[part. of «prae-rumpō», break off]], broken off, steep «praesēns, -entis», adj. present, immediate «praesertim», adv. especially, chiefly «praesidium, praesi´di», n. guard, garrison, protection «prae-stō, -āre, -stitī, -stitus» [[«prae», before, + «sto», stand]], (stand before), excel, surpass, with dat. (§501.15); show, exhibit «prae-sum, -esse, -fuī, -futūrus» [[«prae», before, + «sum», be]], be over, be in command of, with dat. (§501.15) «praeter», prep, with acc. beyond, contrary to (§340) «praetereā», adv. [[«praeter», besides, + «eā», this]], in addition, besides, moreover «praetextus, -a, -um», adj. bordered, edged «praetōrium, praetō´rī», n. prætorium «prandium, prandī», n. luncheon «premō, -ere, pressī, pressus», press hard, compress; crowd, drive, harass («prex, precis»), f. prayer «prīmō», adv. [[«prīmus», first]], at first, in the beginning (§322) «prīmum», adv. [[«prīmus», first]], first. «quam primum», as soon as possible «prīmus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «prior, prīmus», first (§315) «prīnceps, -cipis», m. [[«prīmus», first, + «capiō», take]], (taking the first place), chief, leader (§464.1) «prior, prius, -ōris», adj. in comp. degree, superl., «prīmus», former (§315) «prīstinus, -a, -um», adj. former, previous «prō», prep, with abl. before; for, for the sake of, in behalf of; instead of, as (§209). In composition, forth, forward «prō-cēdō, -ere, -cussī, -cessūrus» [[«prō», forward, + «cēdō», go]], go forward, proceed «procul», adv. far, afar off «prō-currō, -ere, -currī» («-cucurrī»), «-cur-sus» [[«prō», forward, + «currō», run]], run forward «proelium, proeli», n. battle, combat. «proelium committere», join battle. «proelium facere», fight a battle «profectiō, -ōnis», f. departure «proficīscor, -ī, -fectus sum», dep. verb, set out, march. Cf. «ēgredior, exeō» «prō-gredior, -ī, -gressus sum», dep. verb [[«prō», forth, + «gradior», go]], go forth, proceed, advance. Cf. «pergō, prōcēdō» «prōgressus», see «prōgredior» «prohibeō, -ēre, -uī, -itus» [[«prō», forth, away from, + «habeō», hold]], keep away from, hinder, prevent «prō-moveō, -ēre, -mōvī, -mōtus» [[«prō», forward, + «moveō», move]], move forward, advance «prō-nūntiō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«prō», forth, + «nūntiō», announce]], proclaim, declare «prope», adv., compared «propius, proxi-mē», nearly. Prep, with acc. near «prō-pellō, -ere, -pulī, -pulsus» [[«prō», forth, + «pellō», drive]], drive forth; move, impel «properō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«properus», quick]], go quickly, hasten. Cf. «contendō, maturō» «propinquus, -a, -um», adj. [[«prope», near]], near, neighboring «propior, -ius, -ōris», adj. in comp. degree, superl., «proximus», nearer (§315) «propius», adv. in comp. degree, compared «prope, propius, proximē», nearer (§323) «propter», prep. with acc. on account of, because of (§340) «prō-scrībō, -ere, -scrīpsī, -scriptus» [[«prō», forth, + «scribō», write]], proclaim, publish. Cf. «prōnūntiō» «prō-sequor, -sequī, -secūtus sum», dep. verb [[«prō», forth, + «sequor», follow]], escort, attend «prō-sum, prōdesse, prōfuī, prōfutūrus» [[«prō», for, + «sum», be]], be useful, benefit, with dat. (§§496; 501.15) «prō-tegō, -ere, -tēx=i], -tēctus» [[«prō», in front, + «tegō», cover]], cover in front, protect «prōvincia, -ae», f. territory, province «proximē», adv. in superl. degree, compared «prope, propius, proximē», nearest, next; last, most recently (§323) «proximus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «propior, proximus», nearest, next (§315) «pūblicus, -a, -um», adj. [[«populus»,people]], of the people, public, «res pūblica», the commonwealth «puella, -ae», f. [[diminutive of «puer», boy]], girl, maiden «puer, -eri», m. boy; slave (§462.c) «pugna, -ae», f -fight, battle. Cf. «proelium» «pugnō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«pugna», battle]], fight. Cf. «contendō, dīmicō» «pulcher, -chra, -chrum», adj. beautiful, pretty (§§469.b; 304) «Pullō, -ōnis», m. Pullo, a centurion «pulsō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», strike, beat «puppis, -is» (acc. «-im», abl. «-ī»), f. stern of a ship, deck «pūrē», adv. [[«pūrus», pure]], comp. «pūrius», purely «pūrgō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», cleanse, clean «purpureus, -a, -um», adj. purple, dark red «putō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», reckon, think (§420,c). Cf. «arbitror, exīstimō» «Pȳthia, -ae», f. Pythia, the inspired priestess of Apollo at Delphi

«quā dē causā», for this reason, wherefore «quā rē», therefore, for this reason «quaerō, -ere, -sīvī, -sītus», seek, ask, inquire. Cf. «petō, postulō, rogō» «quālis, -e», interrog. pronom. adj. of what sort, what kind of. «talis ... qualis», such ... as «quam», adv. how; after a comparative, than; with a superlative, translated as...as possible, «quam prīmum», as soon as possible «quantus, -a, -um», adj. [[«quam», how]], how great, how much, «tantus ... quantus», as great as «quārtus, -a, -um», numeral adj. [[«quattuor», four]], fourth «quattuor», indecl. numeral adj. four «quattuor-decim», indecl. numeral adj. fourteen «-que», conj., enclitic, and (§16). Cf. «ac, atque, et» «quī, quae, quod», rel. pron. and adj. who, which, what, that (§482) «quia», conj. because. Cf. «quod» «quīdam, quaedam, quiddam (quoddam)», indef. pron. and adj. a certain one, a certain, a (§485). «quidem», adv. to be sure, certainly, indeed, «nē ... quidem», not even «quiēs, -ētis», f. rest, repose «quiētus, -a, -um», adj. quiet, restful «quīndecim», indecl. numeral adj. fifteen «quīngentī, -ae, -a», numeral adj. five hundred «quīnque», indecl. numeral adj. five «quīntus, -a, -um», numeral adj. fifth «quis (quī), quae, quid (quod)», interrog. pron. and adj. who? what? which? (§483). «quis (quī), qua (quae), quid (quod)», indef. pron. and adj., used after «sī, nisi, nē, num», any one, anything, some one, something, any, some (§484). «quisquam, quicquam» or «quidquam» (no fem. or plur.), indef. pron. any one (at all), anything (at all) (§486). «quisque, quaeque, quidque (quodque)», indef. pron. and adj. each, each one, every (§484). «quō», interrog. and rel. adv. whither, where «quō», conj. in order to, that, with comp. degree (§350). «quod», conj. because, in that. Cf. «quia» «quoque», conj., following an emphatic word, also, too. Cf. «etiam» «quot-annīs», adv. [[«quot», how many + «annus», year]], every year, yearly «quotiēns», interrog. and rel. adv. how often? as often as

«rādīx, -īcis», f. root; foot «rapiō, -ere, -uī, -tus», seize, snatch «rārō», adv. [[«rārus», rare]], rarely «rārus, -a, -um», adj. rare «re-» or «red-», an inseparable prefix, again, back, anew, in return «rebelliō, -ōnis», f. renewal of war, rebellion «recēns, -entis», adj. recent «re-cipiō, -ere, -cēpī, -ceptus» [[«re-», back, + «capiō», take]], take back, receive. «sē recipere», withdraw, retreat «re-clīnātus, -a, -um», part. of «reclīnō», leaning back «re-creātus, -a, -um», part. of «recreō», refreshed «rēctus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «regō», keep straight]], straight, direct «re-cūsō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», refuse «red-āctus, -a, -um», part. of «redigō», reduced, subdued «red-eō, -īre, -iī, -itus» [[«red-», back, + «eō», go]], go back, return (§413). Cf. «revertō» «reditus, -ūs», m. [[cf. «redeō», return]], return, going back «re-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus» [[«re-», back, + «dūcō», lead]], lead back «re-ferō, -ferre, rettulī, -lātus» [[«re-», back, + «ferō», bear]], bear back; report. «pedem referre», withdraw, retreat «re-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus» [[«re-», again, + «faciō», make]], make again, repair. «sē reficere», refresh one’s self «rēgīna, -ae», f. [[«rēx», king]], queen «regiō, -ōnis», f. region, district «rēgnum, -ī», n. sovereignty; kingdom «regō, -ere, rēxī, rēctus» [[cf. «rēx», king]], govern, rule (§490) «re-iciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectus» [[«re-», back, + «iaciō», hurl]], hurl back; throw away «re-linquō, -ere, -līquī, -lictus» [[«re-», behind, + «linquō», leave]], leave behind, leave, abandon «reliquus, -a, -um», adj. [[cf. «relinquō», leave]], left over, remaining. As a noun, plur. the rest «remōtus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «re-moveō», remove]], remote, distant «re-moveō, -ēre, -mōvī, -motus» [[«re-», back, + «moveō», move]], remove «rēmus, -ī», m. oar «re-periō, -īre, repperī, repertus», find «re-portō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«re-», back, + «portō», carry]], carry back, bring back, win, gain «rēs, reī», f. thing, business, matter, deed, event, circumstance (§467). «quam ob rem», for this reason. «rēs adversae», adversity. «rēs frūmentāria», grain supplies. «rēs gestae», exploits. «rēs militāris», science of war. «rēs pūblica», the commonwealth. «rēs secundae», prosperity «re-scindō, -ere, -scidī, -scissus» [[«re-», back, + «scindō», cut]], cut off, cut down «re-sistō, -ere, -stitī», ---- [[«re-», back, + «sistō», cause to stand]], oppose, resist, with dat. (§501.14) «re-spondeō, -ēre, -spondī, -spōnsus» [[«re-», in return, + «spondeō», promise]], answer, reply (§420.a) «re-vertō, -ere, -ī», ----, or dep. verb «re-vertor, -ī, -sus sum» [[«re-», back, + «vertō», turn]], turn back, return. Usually active in the perf. system «re-vinciō, -īre, -vīnxī, -vīnctus» [[«re-», back, + «vinciō», bind]], fasten «rēx, rēgis», m. [[cf. «regō», rule]], king «Rhēnus, -ī», m. the Rhine, a river of Germany «rīpa, -ae», f. bank «rogō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», ask. Cf. «petō, postulō, quaerō» «Rōma, -ae», f. Rome. See map «Rōmānus, -a, -um», adj. [[«Rōma», Rome]], Roman, follows its noun. As a noun, m. and f. a Roman «rosa, -ae», f. rose «rōstrum, -ī», n. beak of a ship. In plur., the rostra, the speaker’s stand in the Roman Forum «rota, -ae», f. wheel «Rubicō, -ōnis», m. the Rubicon, a river in northern Italy. See map «rūmor, -ōris», m. report, rumor «rūrsus», adv. [[for «reversus», turned back]], again, in turn «rūs, rūris» (locative abl. «rūrī», no gen., dat., or abl. plur.), n. the country (§501.36.1). Cf. «ager, patria, terra»

«Sabīnus, -a, -um», adj. Sabine. As a noun, m. and f. a Sabine. The Sabines were an ancient people of central Italy. See map «sacrum, -ī», n. [[«sacer», consecrated]], something consecrated, sacrifice; usually in plur., religious rites «saepe», adv., compared «saepius, saepissimē», often, frequently «saevus, -a, -um», adj. cruel, savage «sagitta, -ae», f. arrow «saliō, -īre, -uī, saltus», jump «salūs, -ūtis», f. safety; health. «salūtem dīcere», send greetings «salūtō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«salūs», health]], greet, salute «salvē», imv. of «salveō», hail, greetings «sanguis, -inis», m. blood (§247.2.a] «sānitās, -ātis», f. [[«sānus», sound]], health, sanity «sapiēns, -entis», adj. [[part. of «sapiō», be wise]], wise, sensible «satis», adv. and indecl. noun, enough, sufficient, sufficiently «saxum, -ī», n. rock, stone «scelus, -eris», n. crime, sin «scēptrum, -ī», n. scepter «schola, -ae», f. school, the higher grades. Cf. «lūdus» «scientia, -ae», f. [[«sciēns», knowing]], skill, knowledge, science «scindō, -ere, scidī, scissus», cut, tear «sciō, -īre, -īvī, -ītus», know (§420.b). Cf. «cognōscō» «scrībō, -ere, scrīpsī, scrīptus», write «scūtum, -ī», n. shield, buckler «sē», see «suī» «sēcum» = «sē» + «cum» «secundus, -a, -um», adj. [[«sequor», follow]], following, next, second; favorable, successful. «rēs secundae», prosperity «sed», conj. but, on the contrary. «nōn sōlum ... sed etiam», not only ... but also «sēdecim», indecl. numeral adj. sixteen «sedeō, -ēre, sēdī, sessus», sit «semper», adv. always, forever «senātus, -ūs», m. [[cf. «senex», old]], council of elders, senate «sentiō, -īre, sēnsī, sēnsus», feel, know, perceive (§420.d). Cf. «intellegō», «videō» «septem», indecl. numeral adj. seven «septimus, -a, -um», numeral adj. seventh «sequor, -ī, secūtus sum», dep. verb, follow (§493) «serpēns, -entis», f. [[«serpō», crawl]], serpent, snake «sertae, -ārum», f. plur. wreaths, garlands «servitūs, -ūtis», f. [[«servus», slave]], slavery, servitude «servō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», save, rescue, keep «servus, -ī», m. slave «sēsē», emphatic for «sē» «sex», indecl. numeral adj. six «Sextus, -ī», m. Sextus, a Roman first name «sī», conj. if «sīc», adv. thus, in this way. Cf. «ita», «tam» «Sicilia, -ae», f. Sicily. See map «sīc-ut», just as, as if «signifer, -erī», m. [[«signum», standard, + «ferō», bear]], standard bearer (p. 224) «signum, -ī», n. ensign, standard; signal «silva, -ae», f. wood, forest «similis, -e», adj., compared «similior, simillimus», like, similar (§307) «simul», adv. at the same time «simul ac» or «simul atque», conj. as soon as «sine», prep. with abl. without (§209) «singulī, -ae, -a», distributive numeral adj. one at a time, single (§334) «sinister, -tra, -trum», adj. left «Sinuessa, -ae», f. Sinues´sa, a town in Campania. See map «sitis, -is» (acc. «-im», abl. «-ī», no plur.), f. thirst «situs, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «sinō», set]], situated, placed, lying «socius, socī», m. comrade, ally «sōl, sōlis» (no gen. plur.), m. sun «soleō, -ēre, solitus sum», semi-dep. verb, be wont, be accustomed «sollicitus, -a, -um», adj. disturbed, anxious «sōlum», adv. [[«sōlus», alone]], alone, only. «nōn sōlum ... sed etiam», not only ... but also «sōlus, -a, -um» (gen. «-īus», dat. «-ī»), adj. alone, only (§108) «solvō, -ere, solvī, solūtus», loosen, unbind. «nāvem solvere», set sail «somnus, -ī», m. sleep «soror, -ōris», f. sister «spatium, spatī», n. space, distance; time; opportunity «spectāculum, -ī», n. [[«spectō», look at]], show, spectacle «spectō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», look at, witness «spērō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[spēs, hope]], hope, expect (§420.c) «spēs, speī», f. hope (§273.2) «splendidē», adv. [[«splendidus»]], compared «splendidius, splendidissimē», splendidly, handsomely «splendidus, -a, -um», adj. brilliant, gorgeous, splendid «Stabiānus, -a, -um», Stabian «stabulum, -ī», n. [[cf. «stō», stand]], standing place, stable, stall «statim», adv. [[cf. «stō», stand]], on the spot, at once, instantly «statua, -ae», f. [[«sistō», place, set]], statue «statuō, -ere, -uī, -ūtus» [[«status», station]], decide, determine «stilus, -ī», m. iron pencil, style (p. 210) «stō, -āre, stetī, status», stand «strātus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «sternō», spread]], paved (of streets) «strepitus, -ūs», m. [[«strepō», make a noise]], noise, din «stringō, -ere, strīnxī, strictus», bind tight; draw, unsheathe «studeō, -ēre, -uī, ----», give attention to, be eager, with dat. (§501.14) «studium, studī», n. [[cf. «studeō», be eager for]], eagerness, desire, zeal, devotion «stultus, -a, -um», adj. foolish, stupid «Stymphālis, -idis», adj. f. Stymphalian, of Stympha´lus, a lake in southern Greece «Stymphālus, -ī», m. Stympha´lus, a district of southern Greece with a town, mountain, and lake, all of the same name «suādeō, -ēre, -sī, -sus», advise, recommend, with subjv. of purpose (§501.41) «sub», prep, with acc. and abl. under, below, up to; at or to the foot of «sub-igō, -ere, -ēgī, -āctus» [[«sub», under, + «agō», drive]], subdue, reduce «subitō», adv. [[«subitus», sudden]], suddenly «sub-sequor, -ī, -secūtus sum», dep. verb [[«sub», below, + «sequor», follow]], follow close after, follow up «suc-cēdō, -ere, -cessī, -cessus» [[«sub», below, + «cēdō», go]], follow, succeed «suī», reflexive pron. of himself (herself, itself, themselves) (§480). «sēcum» = «sē» + «cum». «sēsē», emphatic form of «sē» «sum, esse, fuī, futūrus», irreg. verb, be; exist (§494) «summus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «superus, superior, suprēmus» or «summus» (§312), supreme, highest; best, greatest. «in summō colle», on the top of the hill «sūmō, -ere, sūmpsī, sūmptus», take up; assume, put on. «sūmere supplicium dē», inflict punishment on «super», prep. with acc. and abl. over, above «superbia, -ae», f. [[«superbus», proud]], pride, arrogance «superbus, -a, -um», adj. proud, haughty «superior», comp. of «superus» «superō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«superus», above]], go over; subdue, overcome; surpass, excel «super-sum, -esse, -fuī, ----», be over, survive, with dat. (§501.15) «superus, -a, -um», adj., compared «superior, suprēmus» or «summus», above, upper (§312) «supplicium, suppli´cī», n. [[«supplex», kneeling in entreaty]], punishment, torture. «supplicium sūmere dē», inflict punishment on. «supplicium dare», suffer punishment «surgō, -ere, surrēxī», ---- [[«sub», from below, + «regō», straighten]], rise «sus-cipiō, -ere, -cēpī, -ceptus» [[«sub», under, + «capiō», take]], undertake, assume, begin «suspicor, -ārī, -ātus sum», dep. verb, suspect, surmise, suppose «sus-tineō, -ēre, -tinuī, -tentus» [[«sub», under, + «teneō», hold]], hold up, bear, sustain, withstand «suus, -a, -um», reflexive possessive adj. and pron., his, her, hers, its, their, theirs (§98)

«T.», abbreviation of «Titus» «taberna, -ae», f. shop, stall «tabula, -ae», f. tablet for writing «tālis, -e», adj. such. «tālis ... quālis», such ... as «tam», adv. so, such. Cf. «ita, sīc» «tamen», adv. yet, however, nevertheless «tandem», adv. at length, finally «tangō, -ere, tetigī, tāctus», touch «tantum», adv. [[«tantus»]], only «tantus, -a, -um», adj. so great, such. «tantus ... quantus», as large as «tardus, -a, -um», adj. slow, late; lazy «Tarpēia, -ae», f. Tarpeia (pronounced Tar-pē´ya), the maiden who opened the citadel to the Sabines «Tarquinius, Tarqui´nī», Tarquin, a Roman king. With the surname «Superbus», Tarquin the Proud «Tarracīna, -ae», f. Tarraci´na, a town in Latium. See map «taurus, -ī», m. bull «tēctus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «tegō», cover]], covered, protected «tēlum, -ī», n. weapon «temerē», adv. rashly, heedlessly «tempestās, -ātis», f. [[«tempus», time]] storm, tempest «templum, -ī», n. temple, shrine «tempto, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», try, test; make trial of, attempt «tempus, -oris», n. time (§464.2.b). «in reliquum tempus», for the future «teneō, -ēre, tenuī», ----, hold, keep «tergum, -ī», n. back, «ā tergō», on the rear, «tergum vertere», retreat, flee «ternī, -ae, -a», distributive numeral adj. three each, by threes (§334) «terra, -ae», f. earth, ground, land. «orbis terrārum», the whole world «terror, -ōris», m. [[cf. «terreō», frighten]], dread, alarm, terror «tertius, -a, -um», numeral adj. third «Teutonēs, -um», m. the Teutons «theātrum, -ī», n. theater «Thēbae, -ārum», f. Thebes, a city of Greece «Thēbānī, -ōrum», m. Thebans, the people of Thebes «thermae, -ārum», f. plur. baths «Thessalia, -ae», f. Thessaly, a district of northern Greece «Thrācia, -ae», f. Thrace, a district north of Greece «Tiberius, Tibe´rī», m. Tiberius, a Roman first name «tībīcen, -īnis», m. [[cf. «tībia», pipe]], piper, flute player «timeō, -ēre, -uī», ----, fear, be afraid of. Cf. «vereor» «timor, -ōris», m. [[cf. «timeō», fear]], fear, dread, alarm. Cf. «metus» «Tīryns, Tīrynthis», f. Ti´ryns, an ancient town in southern Greece, where Hercules served Eurystheus «toga, -ae», f. [[cf. «tegō», cover]], toga «tormentum, -ī», n. engine of war «totiēns», adv. so often, so many times «tōtus, -a, -um», (gen. «-īus», dat. «-ī»), adj. all, the whole, entire (§108) «trā-dō, -ere, -didī, -ditus» [[«trāns», across, + «dō», deliver]], give up, hand over, surrender, betray «trā-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus» [[«trāns», across, + «dūcō», lead]], lead across «trahō, -ere, trāxī, trāctus», draw, pull, drag. «multum trahere», protract, prolong much «trā-iciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectus» [[«trāns», across, + «iaciō», hurl]], throw across; transfix «trā-nō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«trāns», across, + «nō», swim]], swim across «trāns», prep. with acc. across, over (§340) «trāns-eō, -īre, -iī, -itus» [[«trāns», across, + «eō», go]], go across, cross (§413) «trāns-fīgō, -ere, -fīxī, -fīxus» [[«trāns», through, + «fīgō», drive]], transfix «trānsitus», ---- (acc. «-um», abl. «-ū»), m. [[cf. «trānseō», cross over]], passage across «trēs, tria», numeral adj. three (§479) «trīduum, trīduī», n. [[«trēs», three, + «diēs», days]], three days’ time, three days «trīgintā», indecl. numeral adj. thirty «triplex, -icis», adj. threefold, triple «trīstis, -e», adj. sad; severe, terrible «trīstitia, -ae», f. [[«trīstis», sad]], sadness, sorrow «triumphō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«triumphus», triumph]], celebrate a triumph «triumphus, -ī», m. triumphal procession, triumph. «triumphum agere», celebrate a triumph «trucīdō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», cut to pieces, slaughter. Cf. «interficiō», «necō», «occīdō» «tū, tuī» (plur. «vōs»), pers. pron. thou, you (§480) «tuba, -ae», f. trumpet «Tullia, -ae», f. Tullia, a Roman name «tum», adv. then, at that time «turris, -is», f. tower (§465.2) «tūtus, -a, -um», adj. safe «tuus, -a, -um», possessive adj. and pron. your, yours (§98)

«ubi», rel. and interrog. adv. where, when «ūllus, -a, -um» (gen. «-īus», dat. «-ī»), adj. any (§108) «ulterior, -ius, -ōris», adj. in comp. degree, superl. «ultimus», farther, more remote (§315) «ultimus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree (see «ulterior»), farthest (§315) «umbra, -ae», f. shade «umerus, -ī», m. shoulder «umquam», adv. ever, at any time «ūnā», adv. [[«ūnus», one]], in the same place, at the same time «ūndecimus, -a, -um», numeral adj. [[«ūnus», one, + «decimus», tenth]], eleventh «undique», adv. from every quarter, on all sides, everywhere «ūnus, -a, -um» (gen. «-īus», dat. «-ī»), numeral adj. one; alone (§108) «urbs, -is», f. city (§465.a) «urgeō, -ēre, ursī», ----, press upon, crowd, hem in «ūrus, -ī», m. wild ox, urus «ūsque», adv. all the way, even «ūsus, -ūs», m. use, advantage «ut», conj. with the subjv. that, in order that, that not (with verbs of fearing), so that, to (§350.1) «uter, -tra, -trum» (gen. «-īus», dat. «-ī»), interrog. pron. which of two? which? (§108) «uterque, utraque, utrumque», indef. pron. each of two, each, both. «ab utrāque parte», on both sides «ūtilis, -e», adj. [[«ūtor», use]], useful «utrimque», adv. [[«uterque», each of two]], on each side, on either hand «ūva, -ae», f. grape, bunch of grapes «uxor, -ōris», f. wife

«vāgīna, -ae», sheath, scabbard «vagor, -ārī, -ātus sum», dep. verb, wander «valeō, -ēre, -uī, -itūrus», be powerful, be well; in the imperative as a greeting, farewell. «plūrimum valēre», have the most power «valētūdō, -inis», f. [[«valeō», be well]], health «validus, -a, -um», adj. [[cf. «valeō», be strong]], strong, able, well «vallēs, -is», f. valley «vāllum, -ī», n. rampart, earthworks «varius, -a, -um», adj. bright-colored «vāstō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«vāstus», empty]], (make empty), devastate, lay waste «vectīgal, -ālis», n. tax, tribute «vehementer», adv. [[«vehemēns», eager]], compared «vehementius, vehementissimē», eagerly, vehemently «vehō, -ere, vexī, vectus», convey, carry. In the passive often in the sense of ride, sail «vel», conj. or. «vel ... vel», either ... or. Cf. «aut» «vēlōcitās, -ātis», f. [[«vēlōx», swift]], swiftness «vēlōx, -ōcis», adj. swift, fleet «vēlum, -ī», n. sail «vēndō, -ere, vēndidī, vēnditus», sell «veniō, -īre, vēnī, ventus», come, go «ventus, -ī», m. wind «verbum, -ī», n. word. «verba facere prō», speak in behalf of «vereor, -ērī, -itus sum», dep. verb, fear; reverence, respect (§493). Cf. «timeō» «Vergilius, Vergi´lī», m. Vergil, the poet «vergō, -ere, ----, ----», turn, lie «vērō», adv. [[«vērus», true]], in truth, surely; conj. but, however. «tum vērō», then you may be sure, introducing the climax of a story «vertō, -ere, -tī, -sus», turn, change. «tergum vertere», retreat, flee «vērus, -a, -um», true, actual «vesper, -erī», m. evening «vester, -tra, -trum», possessive adj. and pron. your, yours (§98) «vestīgium, vestī´gī», n. [[cf. «vestīgō», track]], footstep, track, trace «vestīmentum, -ī», n. [[«vestis», clothing]], garment «vestiō, -īre, -īvī, -ītus» [[«vestis», clothing]], clothe, dress «vestis, -is», f. clothing, attire, garment, robe «vestītus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «vestiō», clothe]], clothed «Vesuvius, Vesu´vi», m. Vesuvius, the volcano near Pompeii. See map «veterānus, -a, -um», adj. old, veteran «vetō, -āre, -uī, -itus», forbid, prohibit «vexō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», trouble, annoy «via, -ae», f. way, road, street; way, manner. Cf. «iter» «viātor, -ōris», m. [[«via»]], traveler «victor, -ōris», m. [[«vincō», conquer]], conqueror, victor. In apposition, with adj. force victorious «victōria, -ae», f. [«victor», victor], victory «vīcus, -ī», m. village «videō, -ēre, vīdī, vīsus», see, perceive. Pass. be seen; seem (§420.d) «vigilia,-ae», f. [[«vigil» awake]], watch. «dē tertia vigilia», about the third watch «vīgintī», indecl. numeral adj. twenty «vīlicus, -ī», m. [[«vīlla», farm]], steward, overseer of a farm «vīlla, -ae», f. farm, villa «vinciō, -īre, vīnxī, vīnctus», bind, tie,fetter «vincō, -ere, vīcī, victus», conquer, defeat, overcome. Cf. «subigō, superō» «vīnea, -ae», f. shed (p. 219) «vīnum, -ī», n. wine «violenter», adv. [[«violentus», violent]], compared «violentius, violentissimē», violently, furiously «vir, virī», m. man, husband; hero (§462.c) «virīlis, -e», adj. [[vir, man]], manly «virtūs, -ūtis», f. [[«vir», man]], manliness; courage, valor; virtue (§464.1) «vīs», («vīs»), f. strength, power, might, violence (§468) «vīta, -ae», f. [[cf. «vīvō», live]], life, «vītam agere», spend or pass life «vīto, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», shun, avoid «vīvō, -ere, vīxī, ----», live. Cf. «habitō, incolō» «vīvus, -a, -um», adj. [[cf. «vīvō», live]], alive, living «vix», adv. scarcely, hardly «vocō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», call, summon, invite. Cf. «appellō, nōminō» «volō, -āre, -āvī, -ātūrus», fly «volō, velle, voluī, ----», irreg. verb, will, be willing; wish (§497). Cf. «cupio» «volūmen, -inis», n. roll, book «Vorēnus, -ī», m. Vore´nus, a centurion «vōs», pers. pron.; you (see «tū») (§480) «vōtum, -ī», n. [[neut. part. of «voveō», vow]], vow, pledge, prayer «vōx, vōcis», f. [[cf. «vocō», call]], voice, cry; word «vulnerō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«vulnus», wound]], wound, hurt «vulnus, -eris», n. wound, injury «vulpēs, -īs», f. fox

[Illustration: EQUES ROMANUS]

ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY

This vocabulary contains only the words used in the English-Latin exercises. For details not given here, reference may be made to the Latin-English vocabulary. The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, after verbs indicate the conjugation.

«a, an», commonly not translated «able (be)», possum, posse, potuī, ----(§495) «abode», domicilium, domici´lī, n. «about» (adv.), circiter «about» (prep.), dē, with abl. «about to», expressed by fut. act. part. «abundance», cōpia, -ae, f. «across», trāns, with acc. «active», ācer, ācris, ācre «advance», prōgredior, 3 «advantage», ūsus, -ūs, m. «advise», moneō, 2 «after» (conj.), postquam; often expressed by the perf.part. «after» (prep.), post, with acc. «against», in, contrā, with acc. «aid», auxilium, auxi´lī, n. «all», omnis, -e; tōtus, -a, -um (§108) «allow», patior, 3 «ally», socius, socī, m. «almost», paene; ferē «alone», ūnus, -a, -um; sōlus, -a, -um (§108) «already», iam «also», quoque «always», semper «ambassador», lēgātus, -ī, m. «among», apud, with acc. «ancient», antīquus, -a, -um «and», et; atque (ac); -que «and so», itaque «Andromeda», Andromeda, -ae, f. «angry», īrātus, -a, um «animal», animal, -ālis, n. «announce», nūntiō, 1 «annoying», molestus, -a, -um «another», alius, -a, -ud (§109) «any», ūllus, -a, -um (§108) «any one, anything», quisquam, quicquam or quidquam (§486) «appearance», fōrma, -ae, f. «appoint», creō, 1 «approach», adpropinquō, 1, with dat. «are», used as auxiliary, not translated; as a copula, sum (§494) «arise», orior, 4 «arm», bracchium, bracchī, n. «armed», armātus, -a, -um «arms», arma, -ōrum, n. plur. «army», exercitus, -ūs, m. «around», circum, with acc. «arrival», adventus, -us, m. «arrow», sagitta, -ae, f. «art of war», rēs mīlitāris «as possible», expressed by quam and superl.. «ask», petō, 3; quaerō, 3; rogō, 1 «assail», oppugnō, 1 «at», in, with acc. or abl.; with names of towns, locative case or abl. without a preposition (§268); time when, abl. «at once», statim «at the beginning of summer», initā aestāte «Athens», Athēnae, -ārum, f. «attack», impetus, -us, m. «attempt», cōnor, 1; temptō, 1 «away from», ā or ab, with abl.

«bad», malus, -a, -um «baggage», impedīmenta, -ōrum, n. plur. «bank», rīpa, -ae, f. «barbarians», barbarī, -ōrum, m. plur. «battle», proelium, proelī, n.; pugna, -ae. f. «be», sum (§494) «be absent, be far», absum (§494) «be afraid», timeō, 2; vereor, 2 «be away», absum (§494) «be in command of», praesum, with dat. (§§494, 426) «be informed», certior fīō «be off, be distant», absum (§494) «be without», egeō, with abl. (§180) «beast (wild)», fera, -ae, f. «beautiful», pulcher, -chra, -chrum «because», quia; quod «because of», propter, with acc.; or abl. of cause «before, heretofore» (adv.), anteā «before» (prep.), ante, with acc.; prō, with abl. «begin», incipiō, 3 «believe», crēdō, 3, with dat. (§153) «belong to», predicate genitive (§409) «best», optimus, superl. of bonus «betray», trādō, 3 «better», melior, comp. of bonus «between», inter, with acc. «billow», fluctus, -us, m. «bird», avis, -is, f. (§243.1) «blood», sanguis, -inis, m. «body», corpus, -oris. n. «bold», audāx, -ācis; fortis, -e «boldly», audācter; fortiter «boldness», audācia, -ae, f. «booty», praeda, -ae, f. «both, each» (of two), uterque, utraque, utrumque «both ... and», et ... et «boy», puer, -erī, m. «brave», fortis, -e «bravely», fortiter «bridge», pōns, pontis, m. «bright», clārus, -a, -um «bring back», reportō, 1 «bring upon», īnferō, -ferre, -tulī, -lātus, with acc. and dat. (§426) «brother», frāter, -tris, m. «building», aedificium, aedifi´cī. n. «burn», cremō, 1; incendō, 3 «business», negōtium, negō´tī, n. «but, however», autem, sed «by», ā, ab, with abl.; denoting means, abl. alone; sometimes implied in a participle «by night», noctū

«Cæsar», Caesar, -aris, m. «calamity», calamitās, -ātis, f. «call», vocō, 1; appellō, 1; nōminō, 1 «call together», convocō, 1 «camp», castra, -ōrum, n. plur. «can, could», possum, posse, potuī, ---- (§495) «capture», capiō, 3; occupō, 1 «care», cūra, -ae, f. «care for», cūrō, 1 «careful», attentus, -a, -um «carefulness», dīligentia, -ae, f. «carry», ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus (§498); portō, 1 «carry on», gerō, 3 «cart», carrus, -ī, m. «cause», causa, -ae, f. «cavalry», equitātus, -ūs, m. «cease», cessō, 1 «Cepheus», Cēpheus, -ī, m. «certain (a)», quīdam, quaedam, quoddam (quiddam) (§485) «chicken», gallīna, -ae, f. «chief», prīnceps, -cipis, m. «children», līberī, -ōrum, m.plur. «choose», dēligō, 3 «choose, elect», creō, 1 «citizen», cīvis, -is, m. and f. (§243.1) «city», urbs, urbis, f. «clear», clārus, -a, -um «cohort», cohors, -rtis, f. «come», veniō, 4 «command», imperō, 1, with dat. (§45); iubeō, 2; praesum, with dat. (§426) «commit», committō, 3 «commonwealth», rēs pūblica, reī pūblicae «concerning», dē, with abl. «conquer», superō, 1; vincō, 3 «construct» (a ditch), perdūcō, 3 «consul», cōnsul, -ulis, m. «contrary to», contrā, with acc. «Corinth», Corinthus, -ī, f. «Cornelia», Cornēlia, -ae, f. «Cornelius», Cornēlius, Cornē´li, m. «corselet», lōrīca, -ae, f. «cottage», casa, -ae, f. «country», as distinguished from the city, rūs, rūris, n.; as territory, fīnēs, -ium, m., plur. of fīnis «courage», virtūs, -ūtis, f. «crime», scelus, -eris, n. «cross», trānseō, 4 (§499) «crown», corōna, -ae, f.

«daily», cotīdiē «danger», perīculum, -ī, n. «daughter», fīlia, -ae, f. (§67) «day», diēs, -ēī, m. «daybreak», prīma lūx «dear», cārus, -a, -um «death», mors, mortis, f. «deed», rēs, reī, f. «deep», altus, -a, -um «defeat», calamitās, -ātis, f. «defend», dēfendō, 3 «delay» (noun), mora, -ae, f. «delay» (verb), moror, 1 «demand», postulō, 1 «dense», dēnsus, -a, -um «depart», discēdō, 3; exeō, 4; proficīscor, 3 «dependent», cliēns, -entis, m. «design», cōnsilium, consi´lī n. «desire», cupiō, 3 «destroy», dēleō, 2 «Diana», Diāna, -ae, f. «differ», differō, differre, distulī, dīlātus (§498) «different», dissimilis, -e «difficult», difficilis, -e «difficulty», difficultās, -ātis, f. «diligence», dīligentia, -ae, f. «dinner», cēna, -ae, f. «disaster», calamitās, -ātis, f. «distant (be)», absum, -esse, āfuī, āfutūrus (§494) «ditch», fossa, -ae, f. «do», agō, 3; faciō, 3; when used as auxiliary, not translated «down from», dē, with abl. «drag», trahō, 3 «drive», agō, 3 «dwell», habitō, 1; incolō, 3; vīvō, 3 «dwelling», aedificium, aedifi´cī, n.

«each», quisque, quaeque, quidque (quodque) (§484) «each of two», uterque, utraque, utrumque «each other», inter with acc. of a reflexive «eager», ācer, ācris, ācre; alacer, alacris, alacre «eager (be)», studeō, 2 «eagerness», studium, studī, n. «eagle», aquila, -ae, f. «easily», facile «easy», facilis, -e «either ... or», aut ... aut «empire», imperium, impe´rī, n. «employ», negōtium dō «encourage», hortor, 1 «enemy», hostis, -is, m. and f.; inimīcus, -ī, m. «enough», satis «entire», tōtus, -a, -um (§108) «expectation», opīniō, -ōnis, f. «eye», oculus, -ī, m.

«faithless», perfidus, -a, -um «famous», clārus, -a, -um «far», longē «farmer», agricola, -ae, m. «farther», ulterior, -ius «father», pater, patris, m. «fatherland», patria, -ae, f. «favor», faveō, 2 «favorable», idōneus, -a,-um; secundus, -a, -um «fear», metus, -ūs, m.; timor, -ōris, m. «fear, be afraid», timeō, 2 «few», paucī, -ae, -a «field», ager, agrī, m. «fifteen», quīndecim «fight», contendō, 3; pugnō, 1 «find», reperiō, 4 «finish», cōnficiō, 3 «fire», ignis, -is, m. (§243.1) «firmness», cōnstantia, -ae, f. «first», prīmus, -a, -um «flee», fugiō, 3 «flight», fuga, -ae, f. «fly», volō, 1 «foe», see «enemy» «follow close after», subsequor, 3 «food», cibus, -ī, m. «foot», pēs, pedis, m. «foot-soldier», pedes, -itis, m. «for» (conj.), enim, nam «for» (prep.), sign of dat.; dē, prō, with abl.; to express purpose, ad, with gerundive; implied in acc. of time and of extent of space «for a long time», diū «forbid», vetō, 1 «forces», cōpiae, -ārum, f., plur. of cōpia «forest», silva, -ae, f. «fort», castellum, -ī, n.; castrum, -ī, n. «fortification», mūnitiō, -ōnis, f. «fortify», mūniō, 4 «fortune», fortūna, -ae, f. «fourth», quārtus, -a, -um «free», līber, -era, -erum «free, liberate», līberō, 1 «frequent», crēber, -bra, -brum «friend», amīcus, -ī, m. «friendly» (adj.), amīcus, -a, -um «friendly» (adv.), amīcē «friendship», amīcitia, -ae, f. «frighten», perterreō, 2 «from», ā or ab, dē, ē, ex, with abl. Often expressed by the separative ablative without a prep. «from each other», inter, with acc. of a reflexive pron. «full», plēnus, -a, -um

«Galba», Galba, -ae, m. garland, corōna, -ae, f. «garrison», praesidium, praesi´dī, n. «gate», porta, -ae, f. «Gaul», Gallia, -ae, f. «Gaul» («a»), Gallus, -ī, m. «general», imperātor, -ōris, m. «Geneva», Genāva, -ae, f. «gentle», lēnis, -e «German», Germānus, -a, -um «Germans» («the»), Germānī, -ōrum, m. plur. «Germany», Germānia, -ae, f. «get» (dinner), parō, 1 «girl», puella, -ae, f. «give», dō, dare, dedī, datus «give over, surrender», dēdō, 3; trādō, 3 «give up», omittō, 3 «go», eō, 4 (§499) «go forth», prōgredior, 3 «god», deus, -ī, m. (§468) «goddess», dea, -ae, f. (§67) «gold», aurum, -ī, n. «good», bonus, -a, -um «grain», frūmentum, -ī, n. «grain supply», rēs frūmentāria «great», ingēns, -entis; magnus, -a, -um «greatest», maximus, -a, -um; summus, -a, -um «guard», praesidium, praesi´dī, n.

«hand», manus, -ūs, f. «happy», laetus, -a, -um «harbor», portus, -ūs, m. «hasten», contendō, 3; mātūrō, 1; properō, 1 «hateful», invīsus, -a, -um «haughty», superbus, -a, -um «have», habeō, 2 «have no power», nihil possum «he», is; hic; iste; ille; or not expressed «head», caput, -itis, n. «hear», audiō «heart», animus, -ī, m. «heavy», gravis, -e «Helvetii» («the»), Helvētiī, -ōrum, m. plur. «hem in», contineō, 2 «hen», gallīna, -ae, f. «her», eius; huius; istīus; illīus; reflexive, suus, -a, -um (§116) «hide», abdō, 3 «high», altus, -a, -um «highest», summus, -a, -um «hill», collis, -is, m. «himself», suī. See «self» «hindrance», impedīmentum, -ī, n. «his», eius; huius; istīus; illīus; reflexive, suus, -a, -um (§116) «hither», citerior, -ius (§315) «hold», teneō, 2 «home», domus, -ūs, f. (§468). «at home», domī (§267) «hope» (noun), spēs, speī, f. «hope» (verb), spērō, 1 «horse», equus, -ī, m. «horseman», eques, -itis, m. «hostage», obses, -idis, m. and f. «hostile», inimīcus, -a, -um «hour», hōra, -ae, f. «house», domicilium, domici´lī, n.; domus, -ūs, f. (§468) «hurl», iaciō, 3

«I», ego (§280); or not expressed «if», sī. «if not», nisi «ill», aeger, -gra, -grum «immediately», statim «in» (of place), in, with abl.; (of time or of specification) abl. without prep. «in order that», ut, with subjv.; «in order that not, lest», nē, with subjv. «in vain», frūstrā «industry», dīligentia, -ae, f. «inflict injuries upon», iniūriās īnferō with dat. (§426) «inflict punishment on», supplicium sūmō de «inform some one», aliquem certiōrem faciō «injure», noceō, 2, with dat. (§153) «injury», iniūria, -ae, f. «into», in, with acc. «intrust», committō, 3; mandō, 1 «invite», vocō, 1 «is», used as auxiliary, not translated; as a copula, sum (§494) «island», īnsula, -ae, f. «it», is; hie; iste; ille; or not expressed «Italy», Italia, -ae, f. «its», eius; huius; istīus; illīus; reflexive, suus, -a, -um (§116) «itself», suī. See «self»

«join battle», proelium committō «journey», iter, itineris, n. (§468) «judge» (noun), iūdex, -icis, m. «judge» (verb), iūdicō, 1 «Julia», Iūlia, -ae, f. «just now», nūper

«keep», contineō, 2; prohibeo, 2; teneō, 2 «keep on doing something», expressed by the impf. indic. «kill», interficiō, 3; necō, 1; occīdō, 3 «king», rēx, rēgis, m. «kingdom», rēgnum, -ī, n. «know», cognōscō, 3, in perf.; sciō, 4

«labor» (noun), labor, -ōris, m. «labor» (verb), labōrō, 1 «lack» (noun), inopia, -ae, f. «lack» (verb), egeō, 2, with abl. (§180) «lady», domina, -ae, f. «lake», lacus, -ūs, m. (§260.2) «land», terra, -ae, f. «language», lingua, -ae, f. «large», ingēns, -entis; magnus, -a, -um «larger», maior, maius «lately», nūper «Latona», Lātōna, -ae, f. «law», lēx, lēgis, f. «lay waste», vāstō, 1 «lead», dūco, 3 «leader», dux, ducis, m. and f. «learn, know», cognōscō, 3 «leave, depart from», discēdō, 3 «leave behind, abandon», relinquō, 3 «left», sinister, -tra, -trum «legion», legiō, -ōnis, f. «legionaries», legiōnāriī, -ōrum, m. plur. «length», longitūdō, -inis, f. «lest», nē, with subjv. «letter» (of the alphabet), littera, -ae, f; (an epistle) litterae, -ārum, f. plur. «lieutenant», lēgātus, -ī, m. «light», lūx, lūcis, f. «like» (adj.), similis, -e «like, love», amō, 1 «line of battle», aciēs, aciēī, f. «little», parvus, -a, -um «live», habitō, 1; incolō, 3; vīvō, 3 «long», longus, -a, -um «long, for a long time», diū «long for», dēsīderō, 1 «look after», cūrō, 1 «love», amō, 1

«maid, maid servant», ancilla, -ae,f. «make», faciō, 3 «make war upon», bellum īnferō with dat. (§426) «man», homō, -inis, m. and f.; vir, virī, m. «man-of-war», nāvis longa «many», multī, -ae, -a, plur. of multus «march», iter, itineris, n. (§468) «Mark», Mārcus, -ī, m. «marriage», mātrimōnium, mātrimō´nī, n. «master», dominus, -ī, m.; magīster, -trī, m. «matter», negōtium, negō´tī, n.; rēs, reī, f. «means, by means of», the abl. «messenger», nūntius, nūntī, m. «midnight», media nox «mile», mīlle passuum (§331.b) «miles», mīlia passuum «mind», animus, -ī, m.; mēns, mentis, f. «mine», meus, -a, -um «mistress», domina, -ae, f. «money», pecūnia, -ae, f. «monster», mōnstrum, -ī, n. «month», mēnsis, -is, m. «moon», lūna, -ae, f. «more» (adj.), plūs, plūris (§313); or a comparative. Adverb, magis «most» (adj.), plūrimus, -a, -um; superl. degree. Adverb, maximē; plūrimum «mother», māter, mātris, f. «mountain», mōns, montis, m. «move», moveō, 2 «moved», commōtus, -a, -um «much (by)», multō «multitude», multitūdō, -inis. f. «my», meus, -a, -um «myself», mē, reflexive. See «self»

«name», nōmen, -inis, n. «nation», gēns, gentis, f. «near», propinquus, -a, -um «nearest», proximus, -a, -um «nearly», ferē «neighbor», fīnitimus, -ī, in. «neighboring», fīinitimus, -a, -um «neither», neque or nec; «neither ... nor», neque (nec) ... neque (nec) «never», numquam «nevertheless», tamen «new», novus, -a, -um «next day», postrīdiē eius diēī «next to», proximus, -a, -um «night», nox, noctis, f. «nine», novem «no», minimē; or repeat verb with a negative (§210) «no, none», nūllus, -a, -um (§109) «no one», nēmō, nūllīus «nor», neque or nec «not», nōn «not even», nē ... quidem «not only ... but also», nōn sōlum ... sed etiam «nothing», nihil or nihilum, -ī, n. «now», nunc «number», numerus, -ī, m.

«obey», pāreō, 2, with dat. (§153) «of», sign of gen.; dē, with abl.; «out of», ē or ex, with abl. «often», saepe «on» (of place), in, with abl.; (of time) abl. without prep. «on account of», propter, with acc.; or abl. of cause. «on all sides», undique «once» (upon a time), ōlim «one», ūnus, -a, -um (§108) «one ... another», alius ... alius (§110) «only» (adv.), sōlum; tantum «opportune», opportunus, -a, -um «opposite», adversus, -a, -um «oracle», ōrāculum, -ī, n. «orator», ōrātor, -ōris, m. «order», imperō, 1; iubeō, 2 «ornament», ōrnāmentum, -ī, n. «other», alius, -a, -ud (§109) «others (the)», reliquī, -ōrum, m. plur. «ought», dēbeō, 2 «our», noster, -tra, -trum «ourselves», nōs, as reflexive object. See «self» «overcome», superō, 1; vincō, 3 «own (his, her, its, their)», suus, -a, -um

«part», pars, partis, f. «peace», pāx, pācis, f. «people», populus, -ī, m. «Perseus», Perseus, -ī, m. «persuade», persuādeō, 2, with dat. (§153) «pitch camp», castra pōnō «place» (noun), locus, -ī, m. «place, arrange», conlocō, 1 «place, put», pōnō, 3 «place in command», praeficiō, 3, with acc. and dat. (§426) «plan (a)», cōnsilium, cōnsi´lī, n. «please», placeō, 2, with dat. (§154) «pleasing», grātus, -a, -um «plow», arō, 1 «Pompeii», Pompēiī, -ōrum, m. plur. «possible (as)», expressed by quam and superl. «powerful (be)», valeō, 2 «praise», laudō, 1 «prefer», mālō, mālle, māluī, ---- (§497) «prepare for», parō, 1, with acc. «press hard», premō, 3 «protection», fidēs, fideī, f. «province», prōvincia, -ae, f. «public», pūblicus, -a, -um «Publius», Pūblius, Pūblī, m. «punishment», poena, -ae, f.; supplicium, suppli´cī, n. «purpose, for the purpose of», ut, quī, or quō, with subjv.; ad, with gerund or gerundive; causā, following the genitive of a gerund or gerundive «pursue», īnsequor, 3

«queen», rēgīna, -ae, f. «quickly», celeriter «quite», expressed by the comp. degree

«rampart», vāllum, -ī, n. «rear», novissimum agmen «reason», causa, -ae, f. «receive», accipiō, 3; excipiō, 3 «recent», recēns, -entis «recently», nūper «redoubt», castellum, -ī, n. «refuse», recūsō, 1 «remain», maneō, 2 «remaining», reliquus, -a, -um «reply», respondeō, 2 «report» (noun), fama, -ae, f.; rūmor, -ōris, m. «report» (verb), adferō; dēferō; referō (§498) «republic», rēs pūblica «require», postulō, 1 «resist», resistō, 3, with dat. (§154) «rest (the)», reliquī, -ōrum, m. plur. «restrain», contineō, 2 «retainer», cliēns, -entis, m. «retreat», pedem referō; terga vertō «return», redeō, 4; revertor, 3 «revolution», rēs novae «Rhine», Rhēnus, -ī, m. «right», dexter, -tra, -trum «river», flūmen, -inis, n.; fluvius, fluvī, m. «road», via, -ae, f. «Roman», Rōmānus, -a, -um «Rome», Rōma, -ae, f. «row», ōrdō, -inis, m. «rule», regō, 3 «rumor», fāma, -ae, f.; rūmor, -ōris, m. «run», currō, 3

«sacrifice», sacrum, -ī, n. «safety», salūs, -ūtis, f. «sail», nāvigō, 1 «sailor», nauta, -ae, m. «sake, for the sake of», causā, following a gen. «same», īdem, eadem, idem (§287) «savages», barbarī, -ōrum, m. plur. «save», servō, 1 «say», dīcō, 3 «school», lūdus, -ī, m.; schola, -ae, f. «scout», explōrātor, -ōris, m. «sea», mare, -is, n. «second», secundus, -a, -um «see», videō, 2 «seek», petō, 3 «seem», videor, 2, passive of videō «seize», occupō, 1; rapiō, 3 «self», ipse, -a, -um (§286); suī (§281) «send», mittō, 3 «set fire to», incendō, 3 «set out», proficīscor, 3 «seven», septem «Sextus», Sextus, -ī, m. «she», ea; haec; ista; illa (§115); or not expressed «ship», nāvis, -is, f. (§243.1) «short», brevis, -e «shout», clāmor, -ōris, m. «show», dēmōnstrō, 1 «Sicily», Sicilia, -ae, f. «sick», aeger, -gra, -grum «side», latus, -eris, n. «siege», obsidiō, -ōnis, f. «since», cum, with subjv. (§396); the abl. abs. (§381) «sing», canō, 3; cantō, 1 «sister», soror, -ōris, f. «sit», sedeō, 2 «size», magnitūdō, -inis, f. «skillful», perītus, -a, -um «slave», servus, -ī, m. «slavery», servitiūs, -ūtis, f. «slow», tardus, -a, -um «small», parvus, -a, -um «snatch», rapiō, 3 «so», ita; sīc; tam «so great», tantus, -a, -um «so that», ut; «so that not», ut nōn «soldier», mīles, -itis, m. «some», often not expressed; quis (quī), qua (quae), quid (quod); aliquī, aliqua, aliquod «some one», quis; aliquis (§487) «some ... others», aliī ... aliī (§110) «something», quid; aliquid (§487) «son», fīlius, fīlī, m. «soon», mox «space», spatium, spatī, n. «spear», pīlum, -ī, n. «spirited», ācer, ācris, ācre; alacer, alacris, alacre «spring», fōns, fontis, m. «spur», calcar, -āris, n. «stand», stō, 1 «state», cīvitās, -ātis, f. «station», conlocō, 1 «steadiness», cōnstantia, -ae, f. «stone», lapis, -idis, m. «storm», oppugnō, 1 «story», fābula, -ae, f. «street», via, -ae, f. «strength», vīs, (vīs), f. «strong», fortis, -e; validus, -a, -um «sturdy», validus, -a, -um «such», tālis, -e «suddenly», subitō «suffer punishment», supplicium dō «sufficiently», satis «suitable», idōneus, -a, -um «summer», aestās, -ātis, f. «sun», sōl, sōlis, m. «supplies», commeātus, -ūs, m. «surrender», trādō, 3 «suspect», suspicor, 1 «swift», celer, -eris, -ere; vēlōx, -ōcis «sword», gladius, gladī, m.

«take, capture», capiō, 3 «take part in», intersum, -esse, -fuī, -futūrus, with dat. (§426) «take possession of», occupō, 1 «tall», altus, -a, -um «task», opus, operis, n. «teach», doceō, 2 «teacher», magister, -trī, m. «tear» (noun), lacrima, -ae, f. «tell», dīcō, 3; nārrō, 1 «ten», decem «terrified», perterritus, -a, -um «terrify», perterreō, 2 «than», quam «that» (conj. after verbs of saying and the like), not expressed «that» (pron.), is; iste; ille «that, in order that», in purpose clauses, ut; after verbs of fearing, nē (§§349, 366, 372) «that not, lest», in purpose clauses, nē; after verbs of fearing, ut (§§349, 366, 372) «the», not expressed «their», gen. plur. of is; reflexive, suus, -a, -um (§116) «their own», suus, -a, -um (§116) «then, at that time», tum «then, in the next place», deinde, tum «there», as expletive, not expressed «there, in that place», ibi «therefore», itaque «they», iī; hī; istī; illī; or not expressed «think», arbitror, 1; exīstimō, 1; putō, 1 «third», tertius, -a, -um «this», hic, haec, hoc; is, ea, id «though», cum. with subjv. (§396) «thousand», mīlle (§479) «three», trēs, tria (§479) «through», per, with acc. «thy», tuus, -a, -um «time», tempus, -oris, n. «to», sign of dat.; ad, in, with acc.; expressing purpose, ut, quī, with subjv.; ad, with gerund or gerundive «to each other», inter, with acc. of a reflexive pron. «to-day», hodiē «tooth», dēns, dentis, m. «top of», summus, -a, -um «tower», turris, -is, f. (§243.2) «town», oppidum, -ī, n. «townsman», oppidānus, -ī, m. «trace», vestīgium, vestī´gī, n. «trader», mercātor, -ōris, m. «train», exerceō, 2 «tree», arbor, -oris, f. «tribe», gēns, gentis, f. «troops», cōpiae, -ārum, f. plur. «true», vērus, -a, -um «trumpet», tuba, -ae, f. «try», cōnor, 1; temptō, 1 «twelve», duodecim «two», duo, duae, duo (§479)

«under», sub, with acc. or abl. «undertake», suscipiō, 3 «unharmed», incolumis, -e «unless», nisi «unlike», dissimilis, -e «unwilling» («be»), nōlō, nōlle, nōluī, ---- (§497) «up to», sub, with acc. «us», nōs, acc. plur. of ego

«very», superl. degree; maximē; ipse, -a, -um (§285) «victor», victor, -ōris, m. «victory», victōria, -ae, f. «village», vīcus, -ī, m. «violence», vīs, (vīs), f. «violently», vehementer «voice», vōx, vōcis, f.

«wage», gerō, 3 «wagon», carrus. -ī, m. «wall», mūrus, -ī, m. «want», inopia, -ae, f. «war», bellum, -ī, n. «watch», vigilia, -ae, f. «water», aqua, -ae, f. «wave», fluctus, -ūs, m. «way», iter, itineris, n. (§468); via, -ae, f. «way, manner», modus, -ī, m. «we», nōs, plur. of ego; or not expressed «weak», īnfīrmus, -a, -um «weapons», arma, -ōrum, n. plur.; tēla, -ōrum, n. plur. «wear», gerō, 3 «weary», dēfessus, -a, -um «what», quis (quī), quae, quid (quod) (§483) «when», ubi; cum (§396); often expressed by a participle «where», ubi «which», quī, quae, quod (§482); «which of two», uter, utra, utrum (§108) «while», expressed by a participle «whither», quō «who» (rel.), quī, quae (§482); (interrog.) quis (§483) «whole», tōtus, -a, -um (§108) «whose», cuius; quōrum, quārum, quōrum, gen. of quī, quae, quod, rel.; or of quis, quid, interrog. «why», cūr «wicked», malus, -a, -um «wide», lātus, -a, -um «width», lātitūdō, -inis, f. «wild beast», fera, -ae, f. «willing» («be»), volō, velle, voluī, ---- (§497) «win» (a victory), reportō, 1 «wind», ventus, -ī, m. «wine», vīnum, -ī, n. «wing», cornū, -ūs, n. «winter», hiems, -emis, f. «wisdom», cōnsilium, consi´lī, n. «wish», cupiō, 3; volō, velle, voluī, ---- (§497); «wish not», nōlō, nōlle, nōluī, ---- (§497) «with», cum, with abl.; sometimes abl. alone «withdraw», sē recipere «without», sine, with abl. «woman», fēmina, -ae, f.; mulier, -eris, f. «wonderful», mīrus, -a, -um «word», verbum, -ī, n. «work», labor, -ōris, m.; opus, -eris, n. «worse», peior, peius, comp. of malus «worst», pessimus, -a, -um, superl. of malus «wound» (noun), vulnus, -eris, n. «wound» (verb), vulnerō, 1 «wreath», corōna, -ae, f. «wretched», miser, -era, -erum «wrong», iniūria, -ae, f.

«year», annus, -ī, m. «yes», certē; ita; vērō; or, more usually, repeat the verb (§210) «yonder (that)», ille, -a, -ud «you», sing. tū; plur. vōs (§480); or not expressed «your», sing. tuus, -a, -um; plur. vester, -tra, -trum (§98.b)

«zeal», studium, studī, n.

INDEX

The numbers in all cases refer to sections.

«ā»-declension of nouns, 57, 461 «ā»-verbs, conjugation of, 488 «ablative» case, 48, 50 absolute, 381 after a comparative, 309 of accompaniment, 104 of agent, 181 of cause, 102 of description, 444, 445 of manner, 105 of means or instrument, 103 of measure of difference, 317 of place from which, 179 of place where, 265 of separation, 180 of specification, 398 of time, 275 «accent», 14-16 «accompaniment» abl. of, 104 «accusative» case, 33 as subject of the infinitive, 214 object, 37 of duration and extent, 336 of place to which, 263, 266 predicate, 392 with prepositions, 340 «adjectives», 54, 55 agreement, 65 comparison regular, 301 by adverbs, 302 irregular, 307, 311, 312, 315 declension of comparatives, 303 of first and second declensions, 83, 93, 469 of third declension, 250-257, 471 with the dative, 143 «adverbs», 319 comparison, 320, 323 formation regular, 320, 321 irregular, 322, 323 «agent» expressed by the abl. with ā or ab, 181 «agreement» of adjectives, 65, 215.a of appositives, 81 of predicate nouns, 76 of relative pronouns, 224 of verbs, 28 «aliquis», 487 «alius», 108, 110, 470 «alphabet», 1-3 «alter», 108, 110 «antepenult», 9.3; accent of, 15 «apposition», 80, 81 «article» not used in Latin, 22.a

«base», 58

«cardinal numerals», 327-329, 478 «case», 32.2 «causal clauses» with cum, 395, 396 «cause», expressed by the abl., 102 «characteristic» subjv. of, 389, 390 «comparative» declension of, 303 «comparison» abl. of, 309 degrees of, 300 of adjectives, 300-315 irregular, 311-315, 473, 475 of adverbs regular, 320-476 irregular, 323, 477 positive wanting, 315 six adjectives in -lis, 307 «complementary infinitive», 215 «compound verbs» with the dative, 425, 426 «concessive» «clauses» with cum, 395, 396 «conjugation stems», 184 «conjugations» the four regular, 126, 488-491 irregular, 494-500 «consonants», 2 «copula», 21 «cum» conjunction, 395 «cum» preposition, 209

«dative» case, 43 of indirect object, 44, 45 of purpose, or end for which, 437 with adjectives, 143 with compound verbs, 426 with special verbs, 153 «dea» declension of, 67 «declension», 23, 32 «degree of difference» expressed by the abl., 317 «demonstrative adjectives and pronouns», 112-115, 290-292, 481 «deponent verbs», 338, 339, 493 «descriptive ablative and genitive», 441-445 «descriptive relative clause» with the subjv., 389, 390 «deus» declension of, 468 «difference, measure of», 316, 317 «diphthongs», 6 «direct statements», 414 «distributive numerals», 327.3, 334 «domī» locative, 267 «domus» declension of, 468 «duo» declension of, 479 «duration» of time, expressed by the acc., 336

«ē»-declension of nouns, 272, 273, 467 «ē»-verbs, conjugation of, 489 «ĕ»-verbs, conjugation of, 490 «ego» declension of, 280, 480 «enclitics», 16 «eō» conjugation of, 499 «extent» of space expressed by the acc., 336

«fearing» subjv. after verbs of, 370-372 «ferō» conjugation of, 498 «fifth or ē-declension», 272, 273, 467 «fīlia» declension of, 67 «fīlius» declension of, 87-89 «finite verb» defined, 173 «fīō» conjugation of, 500 «first conjugation», 488 «first or ā-declension», 57, 461 «fourth conjugation», 491 «fourth or u-declension», 259, 260, 466 «from» how expressed, 178-181 «future participle» formation of, 374.c «future perfect» formation of active, 187.3 passive, 202 «future tense» formation of, 137, 156

«gender» in English and in Latin, 60 in the first declension, 61 in the second declension, 72 in the third declension, 247 in the fourth declension, 260 in the fifth declension, 272 «general observations on declension», 74 «genitive» case English equivalents of, 33 of description, 443, 445 of nouns in -ius and -ium, 87 partitive, 331 possessive, 38, 409 «gerund» a verbal noun, 402, 403 «gerundive» a verbal adjective, 404 with ad to express purpose, 407

«hic» declension and use of, 290, 291 «how to read Latin», 17

«i» consonant, 3 «i»-stems of nouns, 231, 241-244 «ī»-verbs conjugation of, 491 «īdem» declension of, 287, 481 «iēns» declension of, 472 «ille» declension and use of, 290-293, 481 «imperative» formation of, 161, 175 irregular, 161.2 in commands, 161 «imperfect indicative», formation and use of, 133, 134, 165.1 «imperfect subjunctive», 354 «indefinite pronouns and adjectives», 296, 297, 484-487 «independent clauses», 219 «indirect object», 44, 45 «indirect questions», 430-432 «indirect statements», 414-419 «infinitive» as object, 213 as subject, 216 complementary, 215 definition of, 173 does not express purpose, 352 formation of, 126, 174, 205, 206 in indirect statements, 415-410 used as in English, 213-216 «inflection» defined, 23 «instrument» abl. of, 100.b, 103 «intensive pronoun» ipse, declension and use of, 285, 286, 481 «interrogative pronouns and adjectives», 225-227, 483 «intransitive verbs», defined, 20.a with the dative, 153 «iō-verbs of the third conj.», 492 «ipse» declension and use of, 285, 481 «irregular adjectives», 108 «irregular comparison» of adjectives, 307 311, 312 of adverbs, 323 «irregular nouns», 67, 246, 468 «irregular verbs», 494-500 «is» declension and use of, 113-116 «iste» declension and use of, 290, 292, 481 «iter» declension of, 468

«Latin word order», 68 «locative» case, 267

«magis and maximē» comparison by, 302 «mālō» conjugation of, 4.97 «manner» abl. of, 105 «means» abl. of, 103 «measure of difference» abl. of, 316, 317 «mīlle», declension of, 479 construction with, 331.a,b «moods», defined, 121

«-ne», enclitic in questions, 210 «nē», conj., that not, lest with negative clauses of purpose, 350.II with verbs of fearing, 370 «nine irregular adjectives», 108-110 «nōlō» conjugation of, 497 «nominative» case, 35, 36 «nōnne» in questions, 210 «nōs» declension of, 280, 480 «nouns», 19. 2 first declension, 57, 461 second declension, 71-74,87-92,462 third declension, 230-247, 463-465 fourth declension, 259, 260, 466 fifth declension, 272, 273, 467 «num», in questions, 210 «number», 24 «numerals», 327-334, 478, 479

«o»-declension of nouns, 71-74, 87-92, 462 «object», 20 direct, 37 indirect, 44, 45 «order of words», 68 «ordinal numerals», 327. 2, 478

«participial stem», 201.2 «participles», defined, 203 agreement of, 204 formation, of present, 374.b of perfect, 201 of future, 374.c,d of deponent verbs, 375 tenses of, 376 translated by a clause, 377 «partitive genitive», 330, 331 «passive voice» defined, 163 formation of, 164, 202 «penult», 9.3 accent of, 15 «perfect indicative» formation, in the active, 185, 186 in the passive, 202 meaning of, 190 definite, 190 indefinite, 190 distinguished from the imperfect, 190 «perfect infinitive» active, 195 passive, 205 «perfect passive participle», 201 «perfect stem», 185 «perfect subjunctive» active, 361 passive, 362 «person», 122 «personal endings» active, 122 passive, 164 «personal pronouns», 280, 480 «place» where, whither, whence, 263-265 names of towns and domus and rūs, 266-268 «pluperfect indicative» active, 187.2 passive, 202 «pluperfect subjunctive» active, 361 passive, 363 «plūs» declension of, 313 «possessive pronouns», 97, 98 «possum» conjugation of, 495 «predicate» defined, 19 «predicate adjective» defined, 55 «predicate noun», 75, 76 «prepositions» with the abl., 209 with the acc., 340 «present indicative», 128, 130, 147 «present stem», 126.a «present subjunctive», 344 «primary tenses», 356 «principal parts», 183 «pronouns» classification of, 278 defined, 19.2.a demonstrative, 481 indefinite, 297, 484-487 intensive, 285, 286, 481 interrogative, 483 personal, 480 possessive, 97, 98 reflexive, 281 relative, 220, 221 «pronunciation», 4-7 «prōsum» conjugation of, 496 «purpose» dative of, 436, 437 expressed by the gerund or gerundive with ad, 407 not expressed by the infinitive, 352 subjunctive of, 348-350, 365-367

«quality» gen. or abl. of, 441-445 «quam» with a comparative, 308 «quantity», 11-13 «questions» direct, 210 indirect, 430-432 «quī» declension and use of, 220,221, 482 «quīdam» declension of, 485 «quis» declension and use of, 225-227, 483 «quisquam» declension of, 486 «quisque» declension of, 484

«reflexive pronouns», 281 «relative clauses of characteristic or description», 389, 390 «relative clauses of purpose», 348, 349 «relative pronouns», 220, 221 «result clauses», 384-387 «reviews», 502-528 «rūs» constructions of, 266

«sē» distinguished from ipse, 285.a «second conjugation», 489 «second or o-declension», 71-93, 462 «sentences» simple, complex, compound, 219 «separation» abl. of, 180 «separative ablative», 178-181 «sequence of tenses», 356-358 «space» extent of, expressed by the acc., 336 «specification» abl. of, 398 «stems» of nouns, 230 of verbs, 184 «subject» defined, 19.2 of the infinitive, 213, 214 «subjunctive» formation of the present, 344 of the imperfect, 354 of the perfect, 361, 362 of the pluperfect, 361.c, 363 «subjunctive constructions» characteristic or description, 389, 390 indirect questions, 430-432 purpose, 349, 366, 372 result, 385, 386 time, cause, or concession, with cum, 395, 396 «subjunctive ideas», 346 «subjunctive tenses», 342, 343 «subordinate clauses», 219 «suī» declension of, 281, 480 «sum» conjugation of, 494 «suus» use of, 98.c, 116 «syllables», 8 division of, 9 quantity of, 13 «syntax» rules of, 501

«temporal clauses» with cum, 395, 396 «tense» defined, 120 «tense signs» imperfect, 133 future, 137, 156 pluperfect active, 187.2 future perfect active, 187.3 «tenses» primary and secondary, 356 sequence of, 357, 358 «third conjugation», 490, 492 «third declension of nouns» classes, 231, 463 consonant stems, 232-238, 464 gender, 247 i-stems, 241-244, 465 irregular nouns, 246 «time» abl. of, 275 «time» acc. of, 336 «towns» rules for names of, 266, 267, 268 «transitive verb», 20.a «trēs» declension of, 479 «tū» declension of, 280, 480 «tuus» compared with vester, 98. b

«u»-declension of nouns, 259, 260, 466 «ultima», 9. 3

«verbs» agreement of, 28 conjugation of, 126, 488-491 deponent, 338, 339, 493 irregular, 494-500 personal endings of, 122, 164 principal parts of, 183 «vester» compared with tuus, 98.b «vīs» declension of, 468 «vocabularies» English-Latin, pp. 332-343 Latin-English, pp. 299-331 special, pp. 283-298 «vocative» case, 56.a of nouns in -us of the second declension, 73.b of proper nouns in -ius and of fīlius, 88 «voice» defined, 163 «volō» conjugation of, 497 «vōs» declension of, 280, 480 «vowels» sounds of, 5, 6 quantity of, 12

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Two grammatical diagrams were given as images. They are shown here in plain-text format. Prepositions, section 179: ā or ab | | ē or ex /| |\ \ | Place | / || | | dē | V Demonstrative pronouns, section 290: hic iste ille SPEAKER ---------->-------------->----------------> this, he; that, he; that, he (near); (remote); (more remote)

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